Art History Blogger

Assyrian Art and the Lamassu sculpture

2012-02-16T20:03:00.000-08:00

Recently I lectured to a group of students on Ancient Near Eastern Art and since then have been thinking about a work of art that generated quite a large discussion: the Lamassu. The Lamassu were human headed winged bulls, sometimes with the paws of a lion, which were considered guardian figures to the king.

The Lamassu figures are a very interesting example of Neo-Assyrian Art. For several hundred years (934-609 BC) Assyria was the most important and influential empire in the Mesopotamian region. The kings at this time used art as a way to make certain everyone knew of their importance. The figures at the Metropolitan Museum of Art measure 122.5 x 24.5 x 109 in. (311.15 x 62.23 x 276.86 cm), which means they stand over 10 feet (3 meters) tall and would have been quite an imposing presence for visitors. At the same time they were meant to protect the kingdom from demonic forces.

Neo-Assyrian Gateway Human Headed Winged Lions 'Lamassu' from the North West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II in Nimrud, (883-859 BC) British Museum

photo- © Mujtaba Chohan/ public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Lamassu Guardian figures were sculpted in pairs so that they were flanking the entrance to the king's throne room. There are many pairs of these sculptures that are still in existence including those in the British Museum (London), Louvre (Paris) and Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) as well as several in Iraq.

Even though each of these come from different centuries in the Neo-Assyrian period, the style of these sculptures doesn't change much. The examples seen here are either from the reign or Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC) or Sargon II (721-705 BC).   Let's first look at those from the British Museum from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II.

"These composite creatures combined the strength of the lion (or in this case, the bull), the   swiftness of birds indicated by the wings, and the intelligence of the human head. The helmet with horns indicates the creature's divinity."*

The sculptures were meant to be seen in one of two ways- from the front looking directly at the face, or from the side as the viewer entered the king's throne room. Therefore the figures are sculpted with five legs- two that can be seen from the front view and four that can be seen from the side. This would indicate that the figure was a four legged beast, but the extra leg was added so that the side view made visual sense.

Winged human-headed bull (Lamassu)

Neo-Assyrian Period, reign of Sargon II (721-705 BC)

Khorsabad, ancient Dur Sharrukin, Assyria, Iraq

photo- © Luidger/ public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This version of the Lamassu has the paws of a lion rather than the hooves of a bull. Interestingly enough the pair from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (also from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II) each has a different set of feet, one with paws and one with hooves.

The figures were carved in relief, that is they were not free standing sculptures but rather only part of the figure was carved and they needed a wall to support them. Stylistically they are a mix of realism (note the careful portrayal of the legs) and flattened abstraction (such as the stylized portrayal of the wings and the hair).

The Lamassu in the British Museum are followed by many relief panels of the king's lion hunts. These relief panels were also a mix of realism (seen in the lions) and stylized art (usually seen in the human figures).

For more information I posted a link to the Smart History/Khan Academy website (Jan 6 blog posting) with a short and informative look at the Lamassu sculpture at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. I recommend watching it, it is just over 4 minutes long and quite interesting.

*quote taken from the British Museum's website

Neo-Assyrian Art: Human Headed Winged Lion and Bull (Lamassu) - Smarthistory

2012-01-06T13:05:00.000-08:00

This is a really interesting and informative video on one of the sets of Ancient Near Eastern Lamassu sculptures. It is only just over 4 minutes long and I really recommend it.

Click on the link below to visit the SmartHistory website and watch!

Neo-Assyrian Art: Human Headed Winged Lion and Bull (Lamassu) - Smarthistory

Human-headed winged lion and bull (lamassu), 883–859 B.C.E., Neo-Assyrian period,
reign of Ashurnasirpal II, excavated at Nimrud (ancient Kalhu), northern Mesopotamia
(Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Speakers: Monica Hahn, Brian Seymour

The Oath of the Horatii

2011-12-05T19:41:00.000-08:00

The Oath of the Horatii by Jacques-Louis David is both an excellent example of French Neoclassical painting (click to read more on Neoclassicism from the Met) and of a very strong composition within a painting. David chose this subject for his first royal commission. Neoclassical themes had been popular since the Renaissance and in the mid-18th century
Neoclassical art is defined as a style that was strongly influenced by the art and history of ancient Greece and Rome. While at the French Academy David won the Prix-de-Rome and spent several years in the city during which time he was strongly influenced by Ancient Roman art and architecture.

The Oath of the Horatii is an interesting story, the battle between the Roman Horatii family and the Curiatii family from a neighboring city was told by the Ancient Roman author known as Livy. The Horatii brothers are swearing allegiance to Rome on the swords that their father is holding up. All are ready to die to defend their country.

The Oath of the Horatii, Jacques-Louis David, 1784, Louvre, Paris

This is an enormous painting measuring nearly 11 feet high by 14 feet long and the figures were shown as life sized. The focal point for the viewer is the raised hands and swords of the oath, even if the viewer doesn't know the story it can be easily inferred that this is a dramatic event.

The setting is very sparse and the sparseness works well in framing the events and not detracting from the figures. To the right we can see the women of the story, their mother and sisters, who are obviously in despair. This foreshadows the events to come and serves as an interesting counter balance to the strength of the brothers. One of the sisters was engaged to a man from the rival family and she knows that someone she cares about will most certainly die in the battle.

Why would such an ancient story, one that wasn't a frequent theme be painted in late 18th century France?

There were several reasons that Neoclassicism became popular at this time. Visually it was quite a contrast with the frivolous Rococo style that had currently been in fashion. It was favored by royalty as Neoclassical work reflected the power of the Roman Empire. It was equally favored by both the American and French Revolutionaries as it tied into themes of self sacrifice and the Roman Republican period.

The ruins of Pompeii were rediscovered in the mid 1700's and in the following years the site was excavated; this led to a new understanding of and enthusiasm for Roman culture. The 18th century is commonly referred to as "The Age of Enlightenment" and many of the great intellectuals and philosophers were influenced by the rational philosophies of their Classical counterparts.

The Tennis Court Oath, Jacques-Louis David, c-1791, Louvre, Paris
pen drawing with sepia ink wash

While The Oath of the Horatii was commissioned by the French King, David was actually very much on the side of the revolutionaries in the 18th century. He created the above drawing of the Tennis Court Oath, where nearly 600 members of society gathered less than a month prior to the storming of the Bastille and vowed to remain together until a French Constitution was written.

David was clearly influenced by his earlier composition for this sketch, which he later turned into a painting. The raised arms created another strong central focal point for the viewer. Even without knowing the history behind the work the viewer can discern that an emotionally charges and dramatic event is unfolding. Just as in the other work a symmetrical architectural background frames the scene.

The Oath of the Horatii, Armand-Charles Caraffe, 1791
Pushkin Museum, Moscow

Armand-Charles Caraffe was a student of David's and he also painted a version of this theme.

Compare the two paintings, by looking at the two very different ways that the artists chose to arrange the figures we can see that the David painting is much more dynamic. The theme of the Oath that the Horatii family took wasn't a common one and Caraffe would certainly have been influenced by David. However by reversing the direction of the brother's hands the composition doesn't have as strong of a focal point. Dramatic tension was also created in the earlier version by the use of chiaroscuro (modeling form with strong darks and lights).

Caraffe does a good job of depicting this and created an interesting work, but Jacques-Louis David's version has remained one of the most iconic images of Neoclassical French painting.

Trompe-l’oeil in art

2011-11-16T14:58:00.000-08:00

In January of 2010 I saw a really interesting exhibit at the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence: Art & Illusions: Masterpieces of Trompe-l'œil from Antiquity to the Present. That exhibit got me to start thinking of the role of trompe-l’oeil in art. “Trompe-l’oeil” is French for to trick the eye, it is more than just a realistic work of art but it is something created to fool the viewer or at least make the viewer question what they are seeing. It is a work which creates an optical illusion, however the term “Trompe-l’oeil” is used to describe a variety of illusions in art. Some are entertaining and some create quite sophisticated illusions.

There have been many examples throughout time: Ancient Roman, Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque as well as modern and contemporary examples. Let's look at a few of them to compare.

Still life with glass bowl of fruit and vase, wall painting, Pompeian painter c- 70 AD,

The National Archaeological Museum of Naples, Italy

In the wall paintings uncovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum there are many examples of trompe-l’oeil. The most typical were similar to the example above showing still-life objects sitting on a "shelf" they were created to show off the skill of the artist and to amuse the viewer. There were also several mosaic floors created as a trompe-l’oeil showing discarded fish bones. This skillful works also alluded to the wealth of the owner of the home.

It was said in Ancient Greece that there was a contest between two painters, Zeuxis and Parrhasius. Zeuxis painted grapes that were so realistic they fooled birds into trying to eat them. However Parrhasius won the contest as he even fooled the other artist; he had painted a pair of curtains and Zeuxis thought that his painting lay behind the curtains.

I don't know if the story is real, but regardless it demonstrates that trompe-l’oeil has been a part of art for centuries.

Painting of a false dome, Andrea Pazzo, 1685, Chiesa di Sant'Ignazio, Rome, Italy
photo- © Jean-Christophe BENOIST/ public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Painter Andrea Pazzo cleverly created a false dome within the church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome. The illusion works perfectly if the viewer is standing in a certain area, they would look up and see a "dome" which is in fact a flat surface with a fake dome painted in. It is clever as no one would be expecting this type of trompe-l’oeil in a church. However if the viewer is standing in another area the trick doesn't work.

Architectural trompe-l'oeil gallery, Francesco Borromini, Palazzo Spada, Rome, 1638

Trompe-l’oeil in art can also be found in sculpture and architecture such as this example by Borromini done earlier in the century. This gallery is a tour de force of trompe-l’oeil in which shrinking rows of columns and a rising floor create the illusion that the gallery is four times longer than it is. The illusion is made through the use of light, spacing of the columns and the fact that the two archways are vastly different heights.

At first glance Borromini’s gallery is quite long, leading to a statue at the end. The statue is about three-quarters the height of the distant doorway. However when I visited a guide walked from one end to the next to show our group of students the illusion; at the far end she was the same height as the statue, but as she walked along the path we saw she was only about a quarter of the height of the first archway.

This can be explained when you realize that the two doorways are of different heights. However since Borromini constructed this with seemingly perfect perspective, the false perspective tricks you into believing that both doorways are of the same height if you walked from one to the other.

The Staircase Group (Portrait of Raphaelle Peale and Titian Ramsay Peale), Charles Willson Peale, 1795,

oil on canvas, Philadelphia Museum of Art; The George W. Elkins Collection

In this work early American painter Charles Willson Peale creates a trompe-l’oeil by painting life size portraits.

“To enhance the illusion, he installed the painting within a doorframe in his studio, with a real step in front. Rembrandt Peale, another son, recalled that his father's friend George Washington, misled by Peale's artifice, tipped his hat and greeted the two young men as he walked by.”*

*Darrel Sewell, from Philadelphia Museum of Art: Handbook of the Collections (1995), p. 267.

Again the Art & Illusions: Masterpieces of Trompe-l'œil exhibit was one of the most interesting art exhibits I have seen: 150 objects related to illusion. Examples really did “trick the eye” into thinking surfaces weren’t flat, objects were coming off the canvas, the canvas was a piece of wood, or a cabinet with open doors, or something was sculpted rather than painted. Some were truly remarkable and I wanted to reach out and touch them as the illusion was so convincing.

I actually did get tricked with a Duane Hanson sculpture. Hanson was a late 20th century American “hyper-realist” who sculpted people and used real objects in his sculptures, in that exhibit it was a mom pushing a stroller. I didn’t really look at “her” I thought it was a mom pushing a stroller until the person next to me got so close they set off an alarm and then everyone turned to stare and I was truly startled that they weren’t real. They had her set up as if she was a spectator looking at a painting, which added to the illusion.

That is probably why trompe-l’oeil has worked well and has endured to the present day, because so many examples really do fool the viewer.

Continuous Narrative in Art

2011-11-07T21:57:00.000-08:00

What is meant by the "Continuous Narrative" in art? Many artworks contain a "narrative" or representation of an event. The continuous narrative is a way to tell an entire story within one artwork, the same characters show up repeatedly in order to give a timeline of events in the story. Often the same groups of characters are shown right next to each other in the same painting or sculptural frieze.

These side by side scenes can be thought of as pre-cursors to modern day comic strips. They weren’t shown in different panels, but this would have been understood by contemporary audiences to be telling a story.

Column of Marcus Aurelius, detail, bottom three bands of helical relief
Emperor's campaigns against the Germans and the Sarmatians. 180-185 A.D., Rome

photo- © Simone Ramella / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This was used as far back as ancient Assyrian and Babylonian art and remained popular throughout much of art history to depict an entire event from start to finish. The Column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome has one long sculptural frieze that winds up the entire length of the column. The column shaft measures nearly 100 feet (29.62 meters) long.

It is nearly impossible for a viewer on the ground to look up and see the entire story and know what is going on. The sculptors took this into account and made each band slightly wider as it wound up the column. The heads of the figures were also shown slightly larger than proportionally correct so that they could be recognized from below.

As this column shows several military battles where the Romans were triumphant, the same soldiers and military commanders are shown over and over again. Objects such as trees, rivers, horses and architecture help separate and frame each scene.

Column of Marcus Aurelius, c-193 A.D., Rome

photo- © Matthias Kabel / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The technique of continuous narrative was used frequently in Renaissance painting. A good example of this can also be found in the large devotional panel by Gentile da Fabriano which shows the adoration (seen below).

Adoration of the Magi, Gentile da Fabriano, 1423, Uffizi Gallery, Florence

egg tempera and gold leaf on wood panel

The main scene shows the three Magi (or three wise men) as they have come to give gifts to the newborn Christ child. However the Magi are shown in miniature in the scenes above, from the first time they see the Star of Bethlehem to the entire journey they make. We can see the star several times as well and it ends up glowing like a golden orb over St. Joseph's head in the central scene.

In the detail (below) we can see a close up of the left arch of the painting and can make out the three Magi seeing the Star of Bethlehem for the first time. In each of the other two arches the viewer can follow along with their journey.

Adoration of the Magi, Gentile da Fabriano, 1423, Uffizi Gallery, Florence

detail of the central upper register of the panel

St. Peter is seen three times in the fresco below. This fresco by Masaccio is especially interesting as the story does not occur from left to right as in most examples, but jumps from the center to the left and then to the right. This biblical story was very well known, so the contemporary viewer would not have been confused by this. The story begins in the central portion of the frame when the tax collector asks for the temple tax and Christ tells his apostles that they need to find money to pay the temple tax, he turns to Peter and tells him to look in the mouth of a fish in order to find the coin. This event of course is a miraculous one.

Part two of the story takes place just to the left of the main action, St. Peter is wearing the same blue robe but has set his golden sash aside for a moment while he looks for a fish in the sea. Then part three of the story jumps over to the right hand side where after finding the coin as Christ has said, St. Peter pays the tax. Again to help the viewer keep track of St. Peter, he is shown wearing his blue robe and gold sash and the tax collector is the only person wearing a short tunic.

The Tribute Money, Masaccio, 1425, fresco, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

In his famous fresco cycle in Santa Maria Novella the artist Ghirlandaio has also used continuous narrative. Remember from earlier blog posts that Ghirlandaio was in fact the teacher of Michelangelo. Michelangelo was a student in his workshop during the time that these frescoes were being painted, so he would have worked on these as well.

In the panel showing the birth of the Virgin Mary, the birth is concentrated in the lower right hand portion of the frame. However the Immaculate Conception (which refers to the fact that Mary's mother St. Anne was impregnated by just a kiss from her husband Joachim) is shown to us in the top left hand portion. Therefore St. Anne is shown twice in the same room. However that was understood by all to have occurred at two different times within the same story; even though each event took place nine months apart.

Immaculate Conception and Birth of the Virgin Mary, Domenico Ghirlandaio, 1485-90
Tornabuoni Chapel, Santa Maria Novella, Florence

In our final example (below) we are seeing the Rest on the Flight Into Egypt. The artist David shows us that this is his theme rather than a typical portrait of the Virgin and Child by showing the holy family in the background in the woods. By seeing two versions of Jesus and the Madonna, one in the foreground and one in the background, the viewer understands that they are both scenes in the same story. The riding of the donkey is always understood in Renaissance painting as being part of the flight into Egypt from the Biblical story.

The use of the same figures in one panel, which David employs quite subtly in this work, is yet another example of the continuous narrative in art.

Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Gerard David, 1512-15

oil on wood panel, Museo del Prado, Madrid

Now that you have learned about the use of the continuous narrative in art you will certainly notice many other examples.

A Short Guide to the Entire History of Italian Renaissance Painting

2011-10-27T20:53:00.000-07:00

The art of the Italian Renaissance continues to fascinate and influence us more than four hundred years after it has ended. But what exactly does the "Italian Renaissance" refer to in terms of painting and how can it best be understood?

Brancacci Chapel: Saint Peter Raising the Son of Theophilus and

Saint Peter Enthroned as First Bishop of Antioch, Masaccio, 1425, fresco (Santa Maria del Carmine)

The exact parameters are up for debate but I am referring to art created by artists who lived in what is currently considered Italy from 1300 to 1600. The definitive idea of the "Italian Renaissance" was conceived of in the mid-19th century. When I lecture on this subject I tell my students that the phrase "Italian Renaissance" is a bit misleading for a few reasons.

Temptation and Expulsion, Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo, Vatican, 1508-12

Keep in mind that Italy was not united as a modern country until 1861, during the Renaissance it was governed by several large city-states including The Vatican (Rome), The Kingdom of Naples (ruled after 1504 by the Spanish), the Republic of Florence, the Duchy of Milan, The Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Savoy (Torino) and Sardinia among others. Due to the different independent city-states the art and architecture from each region was in fact quite different and should be noted as such rather than being thought of as one overall "Italian" style.

The three hundred year period known as the Renaissance (the rebirth of classical arts and humanities) can be further broken into several chronological periods. Contemporary writer Giorgio Vasari conceived of the Trecento, Quattrocento and Cinquecento to describe the 1300's, 1400's and 1500's and I find that terminology useful as well as a way to describe the artistic differences between the early, middle and later periods.

Here then is our Short Guide to the Entire History of Italian Renaissance Painting:

Early Renaissance/Trecento (the 1300's)

Virgin Enthroned with Angels, Cimabue, The Ognissanti Madonna, Giotto,

c-1290-95,tempera on panel, Louvre 1306-10, tempera on panel, Uffizi

The art of the Trecento is considered to be Medieval by some scholars and the start of the Renaissance by others. The purpose of art at this time was primarily to teach Christianity and Biblical stories and was primarily found in churches. Paintings typically used egg tempera on wood panels, the egg yolk was used as a binder for loose pigments. This method was later supplanted by using oil such as linseed oil as a binder but egg tempera is still used today.

The background was a thin sheet of gold leaf carefully pressed on a thin surface of "bole" which was a red clay. This helped the gold adhere to the panel and also helped it have a warm color.

The idea of realism wasn't important as it would be later, the purpose of these devotional panels was to both teach people of Christianity and help the faithful reflect on God, Christ, Mary, Saints and Angels. Trecento devotional paintings were influenced by Eastern Orthodox Icon paintings.

Giotto di Bondone is considered by many to be the father of the Renaissance, compare his more realistic Madonna on the right with that of his master Cimabue. Giotto started including individual expressions and a sense of perspective to his painting style.

Lamentation of Christ, Giotto, c-1305

fresco, Scrovegni Chapel, Padua

Giotto's new use of realism can best be seen in his two major cycles of frescoes, one at the church of St. Francis of Assisi and the other at the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua. The art of fresco was the most difficult painting method. It involved adding pigment to fresh plaster, when it dried it would be permanently sealed. Its permanence was attractive, that and it's ability to cover much more space than a devotional panel is what caused this type of painting to be so popular in the Renaissance.

Look at an example of Giotto's fresco above, the new naturalistic style became extremely popular. Giotto moved away from the Iconographic portrayal of religious figures to depict each individual and his images were quite powerful. His style was influential upon other artists, such as the Sienese painter Simone Martini, for the rest of the century.

Christ Carrying the Cross, Simone Martini, tempera on panel, 1333, The Louvre

The Renaissance had begun, in art as well as in the sciences and humanities. However due to wars and plagues the artistic inventions of the Renaissance waned for a time until the early 1400's.

Middle Renaissance/Quatrocento (the 1400's)
One of the things that sets Italian Renaissance Quattrocento art apart from earlier art is the use of perspective to add depth and realism. Sculptor and architect Filippo Brunelleschi carefully observed art and ancient Roman architecture and through his observations developed the modern system of single point perspective using a vanishing point. The first painter to incorporate this new style was Masaccio in his St. Peter fresco cycle in Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence done around 1425 (see example below).

The Tribute Money, Masaccio, 1425, fresco, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

This new perspective allowed multiple figures to occupy a space and not seem stacked on top of each other as in older paintings (compare Masaccio with Cimabue's Madonna). Figures sat in different points on a plane and lines within architecture all converged at the same point in space. Examples of both can be seen in Masaccio's fresco The Tribute Money.

Madonna and Child with Two Angels, Fra Filippo Lippi, 1465,
egg tempera on wood panel, Uffizi

Other hallmarks of the Quattrocento (or middle Renaissance) use of perspective are a clear foreground, middle ground and background within a painting. The colors in the background would be faded and grayish in tone. To add the sense of a background many artists such as Lippi (above) would set up a portraiture scene with a window in the background so that the viewer could see a landscape outside. Madonnas and other figures were painted using life models rather than copying older painting or sculptures.

Oculus from the Camera degli Sposi (wedding chamber), Andrea Mantegna, 1465-74

fresco, Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, Italy

Andrea Mantegna from the Veneto region is thought as being the first painter to develop foreshortening in his paintings. A good example can be seen above in the small fresco used to decorate the ceiling of the wedding chamber of the Ducal Palace in Mantua.

The figures and perspective have been altered to create a convincing illusion of depth when seen from below. The surface they have been painted on is flat but due to the use of foreshortening appears to continue upward. In Italian there is an expression for this "di sotto in su" which means to be seen from below upwards and this idea began to be incorporated into painting, sculpture and architecture.

Christ Giving the Keys to Saint Peter, Perugino, 1481-82, fresco

Sistine Chapel walls, Vatican, Rome

This period in the Renaissance is also noted for its sense of perfect harmony and proportion, again this harmony was used in painting, sculpture and architecture as well as music and writing. Art was symmetrical and balanced, look at the example above by Perugino. Here the artist uses a balance of shape, form, color and movement.

Landscapes and figures were idealized and beauty in all things was emphasized. Common forms and shapes were circles, domes, squares, rounded arches, triangular compositions and a floor or ground which had lines or a grid which went back in space to emphasize the new perspective. Perugino was from the city of Perugia in the Umbrian region and was one of the teachers of Raphael who acquired his master's sense of harmony.

The Birth of Venus, Alessandro Botticelli, 1486, egg tempera on canvas, Uffizi

For centuries Christian art and artists shunned the arts and literature of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations as being pagan or heathen. However the Renaissance is so described as it was a "rebirth" of Classical ideas. The knowledge of the ancients was once again revered and art now reflected the combination of Christian values with Classical knowledge. A good example of this can be seen in Botticelli's well know painting The Birth of Venus.

There are many theories as to the exact message in this work, but at this time we now see a turning towards Classical mythology for the first time in centuries.

As it states in the book Gardner’s Art Through the Ages:

“The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 caused an exodus of Greek scholars, many of whom fled to Italy, bringing knowledge of ancient Greece to feed the avid interest in Classical art, literature and philosophy. The same conquest closed the Mediterranean making it necessary to fine new routes to the East. Thus began the age of navigation, discovery and exploration.”

Note- for more information of Brunelleschi, Ghiberti and the Beginnings of the Renaissance read my earlier blog post on the subject.

*Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A Concise History. Wadsworth Publishing; 2^nd edition (April 15, 2008). pg. 246.

Art of the High Renaissance (1490-1520)

I will start by saying that there were dozens of well known and influential painters during what has come to be known as the High Renaissance. However since this is my "short guide" which is already lengthy I will focus on the most famous three: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarotti and Raphael di Sanzio. Such was their fame that they are today commonly called by their first names rather than their last names.

A short list of some of other influential painters of the High Renaissance includes: Antonio da Correggio, Luca Signorelli, Giorgio Vasari, Giovanni Bellini, Fra Bartolomeo, Lorenzo Lotto, Andrea del Sarto and Jacopo Bassano. One of the hallmarks of the time was the fact that artists were so prolific during this period.

However Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael all achieved great fame in their own lifetimes as being masters of painting and it is easy to see why. Each made huge progress within the arts, let's discuss some examples below.

Mona Lisa (La Gioconda) Leonardo da Vinci, 1503-19

Oil paint on poplar panel

Giovanna Tornabuoni, Ghirlandaio, 1489-90

tempera on panel, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum

I personally adore the egg tempera portraits of the quattrocento age such as the one by Ghirlandaio (above). I think the colors appear jewel like and the primitive style is charming, this style of portraiture was quite popular. The portrait in profile was influenced by having ones portrait on coins and medals, however it wasn't the most realistic view.

Let's compare it to the Mona Lisa which was painted less then 15 years later, the use of oil paint gives the work a richness that cannot be achieved with egg tempera. Seen side by side Leonardo's painting looks almost like a photograph, he uses the more realistic 3/4 view of his sitter. He also pioneered "chiaroscuro" which used light and dark to model form rather than using flatter outlines. His technique of "sfumato" was to create painting with many thin glazes or layers of oil paint rather than the bright and flat washes of egg tempera.

The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci, 1495-98, fresco, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan

He also used perspective convincingly and chose to focus on the character and personality of each figure in his composition. Leonardo is considered a genius and ultimate Renaissance man, however since he worked on so many engineering projects he produced few paintings.

The Creation of Adam, Michelangelo, 1508-12, fresco, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican

Michelangelo considered himself above all a sculptor, but his paintings also changed the direction of art at this time. He was a rival of Leonardo but each also had an influence upon each other. He was also a Renaissance man and worked at architecture and poetry as well, he only painted a few works....but what works they were, his Sistine Chapel frescoes have influenced generations of artists.

Michelangelo's great breakthrough in art was his use of convincing and realistic human figures. He studied anatomy, drew frequently from the model and even dissected corpses in order to better understand muscles and bone structure. Look carefully at the samples from his fresco cycle to see how he changed the way the figure was portrayed.

The Lybian Sybil, Michelangeo, 1508-12

fresco, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican


La Donna Velata, Raphael, 1514-15, oil on canvas Palatine Gallery, Palazzo Pitti

Raphael was considered a child prodigy when it came to painting, he captured the perfect harmony of his master Perugino, combined it with the new realistic painting techniques of Leonardo and added the dynamic force of Michelangelo to create a beautiful painting style all his own.

Unlike the other two masters of the High Renaissance Raphael painted many, many paintings. He painted more paintings in his short life (Raphael died on his 37th birthday) than Leonardo and Michelangelo combined. He painted both fresco and on canvas with oils and continued to enhance and reinvent his style.

The death of Raphael in 1520 signaled the end of the High Renaissance.

Deliverance of Saint Peter, Raphael, 1514, fresco, Stanza di Eliodoro, Vatican, Rome

The Late Renaissance/Cinquecento (the 1500's)

The Tempest, Giorgione, 1508,oil on canvas
The Accademia Gallery, Venice

The later part of the Renaissance was dominated by the Venetian School of painting. The Venetian school also included many talented artists but I will focus on three: Titian, Paolo Veronese and Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti). The rivalry and influence between the three artists is reminiscent of the masters of the High Renaissance.

There are a few things to keep in mind with the Venetian school. First is that unlike the Florentine and Roman painters the Venetians were using primarily oil on canvas. The art of fresco painting didn't work as well with the dampness that Venice had. This led to new painting methods and techniques as the method for fresco and for oil on canvas is completely different.

Assumption of the Virgin, Titian, 1516-18, oil on canvas

The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice

The Florentines focused on design and drawing while the Venetians focused on the richness of color that was available with the medium of oil paint. Also the Venetians had a wider variety of pigments at their disposal because they were a major trading port- THE major trading port of Europe at that point and so many pigments came from other areas, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan, cinnabar from China, etc.

The Venetians were known for using sensuality in art, including the use of the female nude which wasn't as popular before. Perhaps that is due to the fact that the patronage had shifted from churches and the pope to individual wealthy patrons and ruling families.

Venus of Urbino, Titian, 1538, oil on canvas, Uffizi Gallery

Moses Striking Water from the Rock, Tintoretto, 1577, oil on canvas, Scuola di San Rocco, Venice

Part of the change in technique was that they didn't start out on a white background; especially Tintoretto used very dark backgrounds and built up layers of highlights. Their technique is referred to as indirect painting as they use many washes and glazes of thin color to build up their final images. Another change was the addition of dramatic approaches to painting, gone are the perfect harmony and Renaissance proportions (such as Perugino’s fresco shown above) and they are replaced by dramatic and asymmetrical compositions (such as Titian's Madonna).

Feast in the House of Levi, Veronese, 1571-73, oil on canvas, Accademia Gallery, Venice

The Venetians also had as patrons the churches in Venice and the Veneto (not as much with the papal rulers) and the Doge of Venice too. This time period in art coincided with the Counter-Reformation so a lot of the art is very Catholic. Veronese's huge painting Feast in the House of Levi was really a Last Supper but he was brought to trial in front of a judge to explain it as it didn't meet the Counter Reformations new codes for religious painting. Veronese had worked for a few years on it, so he gave it a new title and modified the scene to fit with that.

While the Renaissance did continue after this time, the new style of Baroque was ushered in around 1600.

Additional Reading

History of Italian Renaissance Art, Painting∙Sculpture∙Architecture, Frederick Hartt and David Wilkins. Prentice Hall, 2010.

The Lives of the Artists (Oxford World's Classics) by Giorgio Vasari. Translated from Italian by Julia Conway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella. Oxford University Press, 1998.

Michelangelo and the Pope’s Ceiling, Ross King. Penguin, 2003.

Rodin's The Thinker

2011-10-20T23:33:00.000-07:00

I recently visited San Francisco and went to the Legion of Honor Museum. I saw many wonderful works of art but was really happy to get to see one of the bronze casts of Auguste Rodin's The Thinker. This sculpture has been cast in bronze nearly 25 times and those works are located in a variety of museums and parks throughout the world. In addition there have also been several smaller versions of the sculpture cast in materials other than bronze.

I personally have also seen Rodin's The Thinker at the Rodin Museum in Paris and the Rodin Museum in Philadelphia and every time I am struck by this profoundly beautiful work.

This is probably the most famous of all of Rodin's sculptures, an image synonymous with the sculptor himself.

Auguste Rodin (French, 1840–1917). The Thinker, 1903. Cast bronze, Rodin Museum in Paris

The sculpture was intended to portray the great 14th century Italian author and poet Dante Alighieri. However it has now been transformed by those who observe it to represent a man in thought, or the idea of the thoughts of humanity. It was originally called The Poet to refer to Dante.

Rodin undertook an enormous project to create a set of doors for the French Decorative Arts Museum in Paris and the theme for this was the Gates of Hell from Dante's Inferno (from his Divine Comedy), the author's imaginings on hell and afterlife. Another of Rodin's most famous sculptures, The Kiss, also represents characters from Dante's Inferno, the star crossed lovers Francesca and Paolo.

Rodin, The Gates of Hell, 1917, one of the three original bronze casts

Rodin Sculpture National Museum of Western Art Ueno Taito-ku Tokyo Japan

Like The Thinker or many of Rodin's other bronze sculptures, The Gates of Hell has also been cast many times. A detail is shown above with The Thinker at the top in the tympanum of the door looking down upon everything. The entire sculptural work contains 180 figures and this version of The Thinker is much smaller than the more well known over life size work.

This sculpture is a good example of the naturalism that Rodin was famous for. Take a minute to carefully observe this figure, his muscles, bones and facial expressions are all taken straight from life and nothing is idealized or over dramatized as some works of art were at this time.

Auguste Rodin (French, 1840–1917). The Thinker, 1904. Cast bronze

Legion of Honor Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

Gift of Alma de Bretteville Spreckels

Dante is portrayed as being deep in thought in this contemplative pose. Depending on the sources that I have read over he is either meant to be shown thinking about what he is about to write, what he has written, the fate of those in hell (since it was conceived as a part of The Gates of Hell from Dante's Inferno) or the fate of mankind. It is certainly possible that he could be thinking about all of those ideas.

Your Art History Blogger in front of Rodin's The Thinker at the Legion of Honor

There are several other works and artists which have been said to have inspired Rodin. Rodin was influenced quite a bit by the muscular nudes of Michelangelo such as can be seen below from a section of the Sistine Chapel Ceiling. The athletic male nudes that surround each larger fresco have come to be called "ignudi" and the poses of the various ignudi inspired Rodin. The particular seated pose could also have been inspired by Michelangelo's figure of Lorenzo de'Medici from the Medici family tomb in San Lorenzo in Florence.

Another source of inspiration was said to have come from the French sculptor Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux's statue of Ugolino. Ugolino was another character from the Inferno and he met his end by starving to death while imprisoned.

Rodin had spoken frequently of his debt to Michelangelo's work. During his lifetime he traveled to Florence and had visited the Casa Buonarroti which is a museum honoring the Renaissance master.

God Separating Darkness and Light, Michelangelo

Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican, 1508-12

Ugolino, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux (1867-1869) Petit Palais, Paris

Gift of Louise Clément-Carpeaux, daughter of the artist, 1938

In addition to The Thinker, which sits outside in the entrance courtyard, The Legion of Honor has a gallery devoted to the beautiful sculptures of Auguste Rodin. I recommend that anyone who is visiting San Francisco should take a tour through this museum.

Suggested Reading:
Fergonzi, Flavio. Miaria Mimita Lamberti, Pina Ragionieri and Christopher Riopelle. Rodin and Michelangelo, A study in Artistic Inspiration. Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1996.

Sculpting David: Donatello and Michelangelo

2011-10-09T23:17:00.000-07:00

The young figure of King David, as represented in the Biblical story of David and Goliath is frequently represented throughout art history. Perhaps no representation is as well known as Michelangelo's sculpture of David in Florence.

David, Michelangelo, marble, 1501-1504, Accademia Gallery, Florence

photo- © Rico Heil / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Michelangelo won a contest to carve the figure of David out of a block of marble that had been worked on more than 50 years earlier possibly by Donatello or a member of his workshop. At that time the marble was said to have had a flaw in it and the project was abandoned. Michelangelo however was very excited to have the opportunity to now carve from it. He was just starting out in his career and only 26 years old when he began this piece.

The subject of David and Goliath was a popular one, and at this time in history it was commissioned to represent the city of Florence. Florence was a small city and could be seen as the smaller "David" winning battles with several different "Goliaths." France had taken control of the Duchy of Milan in 1494 and then the French army marched to Florence, however Florence was able to negotiate for peace instead of captivity. The famous influential Medici family was exiled from Florence when Lorenzo's son Piero II rose to power, before the Florentines created their peace treaty with France he surrendered the main fortress of Tuscany to avoid war. The Florentines were enraged and the Medici were exiled for nearly 20 years.

In the 1490's the Domenican monk Savonarola had wielded much power over the Florentines and preached that the new arts and humanism of the Renaissance would bring down the city. He staged several huge bonfires known as "Bonfires of the Vanities" in which art, books, furniture, clothing, jewelry and anything he considered a luxury were burned. He was burned at the stake in Florence in 1498 after being excommunicated by the Pope.

As Florence faced the French army, the Medici and Savonarola and kept coming out ahead the symbol of the boy David facing the giant Goliath had an extra layer of symbolism and came to represent the pride they had in their republic.

Michelangelo's David is different in that he chose to depict the moment before David kills the giant Goliath. He isn't afraid at all, he is shown with complete confidence as he faces his much larger foe and knows for certain that he will emerge the victor. The symbolism here is that Florence emerged as victorious several times from large threats in the 1490's and would again in the years to come.

Michelangelo's close study of human anatomy (including dissecting corpses to learn more about bones and muscles) can be seen here in what has come to be thought of as the perfect example of the human form.

Giorgio Vasari was a contemporary of Michelangelo and an artist himself, but is known best for his comprehensive biography of all the Italian Renaissance artists, known as Lives of the Artists. In this book he tells a story about Michelangelo and his sculpture of David (paraphrased from pgs 427-428):

As he was finishing the statue Piero Soderini who was the Gonfaloniere (one of the highest posts in the Florentine government) stopped by and said that he really liked the David but that the nose was too big and that Michelangelo should chisel it down to make it smaller. Michelangelo had no intention of changing the finished David but also thought that Soderini was looking at it from the wrong angle. He climbed a ladder with a handful of marble dust and his chisel and pretended to chisel as he threw the dust around.

When he asked him what he thought now Soderini said, "I like it better, you've made it come alive."

David, Donatello, bronze, c-1430, National Bargello Museum, Florence

photo- © Patrick A. Rodgers / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This wasn't the first time that Donatello had sculpted the David, but this sculpture was a departure from his earlier two. The others were both done in marble showing a young clothed boy, the first was created in 1408-09 and the second was begun around 1412 and was left unfinished.

In fact Donatello's 1430 bronze David was a departure from any contemporary figurative sculpture, being the first life-size nude created since antiquity. This was done when Donatello was well established in his career and was commissioned by the extremely influential Cosimo de'Medici.

Donatello has sculpted a "Triumphant David" in that he showed him after he has already killed Goliath and his foot rests upon the giant's severed head. He is sculpted after the battle between the two. The sculpture was meant to stand in the round, many of Donatello's works were created for niches but this was meant to be seen from all sides. He has sculpted him in a contrapposto pose, a term which refers to the naturalistic way in which a human figure is shown with weight distributed to one hip and how the rest of the body shifts in relation to that. Michelangelo drew on this type of contrapposto pose when he created his David as well.

Let's compare these two famous sculptures of David side by side:

Both look towards the ancient classical examples found in Greek or Roman sculpture and Michelangelo was also influenced by all the work of Donatello who he considered a great master sculptor. Donatello's earlier version was created over 70 years earlier and was inspired by the ancient art he saw on his trip to Rome (discussed further in an older post on the Beginnings of the Renaissance.)

There is a great difference in size between the two: Donatello's stands at 6 feet tall (185 cm) while Michelangelo's is over twice it's size at 13 feet, 5 inches tall (411 cm). Another big difference in the way they were constructed, Donatello modeled his figure in clay and then had it cast in bronze. This was technically very difficult, after it was sculpted it would be covered in wax which would eventually be melted out when molten bronze was poured into the mold made from it. Michelangelo carved his David from a huge block of marble.

As stated earlier Michelangelo shows the moment before David slays Goliath, where Donatello shows a scene after the battle. Both were revolutionary works of art that changed the direction of sculpture that came after them.

Academic Still-Life Painting in 18th Century France

2011-10-03T15:13:00.000-07:00

The year 1648 was notable as the French Royal Academy of Art (Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture) was founded in Paris. French artists would now have uniform training and the Royal State would be able to control art production. As Ludwig states in his essay on Still-Life Painting in the Eighteenth Century:

“The most important developments in 18th century painting came from France, that is artists who worked under privileged conditions but also fiercer competition, as a result of the French state’s efforts to make the city of Paris a center of European art.” [1]

Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, The Ray, 1728, The Louvre

Excellence in French art was seen as reflecting on the magnificence of King Louis XIV. In 1737 the Annual Salon was established at the Academy and the work of artists was now viewed by the public on a regular basis.

In the Royal Academy a strict hierarchy of subject matter was created, most important was history painting which helped promote the state, still-life was referred to as “dead nature”; the least significant category. The still-life was considered the art of copying, not an intellectual art.

As the Enlightenment flourished in Europe, the importance of reason was spread by scientists and writers, such as Voltaire and Diderot. Inspired by new ideas of rationalism and order, themes in painting shifted toward a greater simplicity in both technique and subject matter. Chardin was accepted into the Academy in 1728 and during his career he became well known for his still-lives. He also adopted a rational approach to the use of color and paint and applied a minimalist style to his work, influenced by ideas from this time. Rather than showing every detail of objects, Chardin painted in a way such as to capture the essence of them. As the writer and art critic Diderot said of Chardin:

“Oh Chardin! It is not white, red or black that you grind on your palette: it is the very substance of your subjects: it is air and light that you dip your brush into and transfer and attach to the canvas.”[2]

Chardin’s work was highly praised and he influenced an entire generation of painters.

One such painter was Anne Vallayer-Coster. She was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1770 based on the strength of her still-lives and was one of only four women admitted in the 18th century. Her work attracted the attention of Marie-Antoinette and she became one of the painters of the royal court. Women had been long excluded from this profession, but talented artists such as Vallayer-Coster found success within the still-life genre.

Anne Vallayer-Coster, Still-Life with Tuft of Marine Plants, Shells and Corals, 1769, Louvre

Chardin, The Attributes of the Arts and their Rewards, 1766, Minneapolis Institute of Arts

The new importance of artists in France at the time was reflected in another still-life by Chardin, The Attributes of the Arts and their Rewards. This was painted in honor of his friend the sculptor Pigalle, the first sculptor to win the highest award from the Order of St. Michael. This work is an allegory of the arts which symbolized that being an artist was a learned and noble profession, and one that contributed greatly toward the French culture in the 18th century.

[1] Heidrun Ludwig. Still-Life Painting in the Eighteenth Century. Sander, Jochen. ed. The Magic of Things: Still Life Painting 1500-1800, page 337

[2] Tuchman, Phyllis, The Quiet Master of Jean Simeon Chardin, 5.

Bibliography/suggested further reading-

Sander, Jochen. ed. The Magic of Things: Still Life Painting 1500-1800. Frankfurt am Main,

Germany: Stadel Museum, 2008.

Tuchman, Phyllis. The Quiet Master of Jean Simeon Chardin. Smithsonian Magazine, June 2000.

The Mill and the Cross and Bruegel's Road to Calvary

2011-09-28T22:40:00.000-07:00

I just saw an extremely unique movie, The Mill and the Cross, by the filmmaker Lech Majewski which features Rutger Hauer as the Flemish Renaissance painter Pieter Bruegel the Elder. If you are interested in the Renaissance I would recommend seeing this movie. It is showing for a short time in select theaters (check the Landmark Theaters website for cities).

This movie is visually stunning and takes the viewer inside the painting The Road to Calvary which was painted by Bruegel in 1564. The painting, seen below, shows Christ carrying the cross on the way to his crucifixion in the center of the painting. Instead of a quiet, solemn scene with just a few key biblical figures and a focus on Jesus, it has an almost festive atmosphere with about a hundred people. Jesus carrying the Cross is nearly hidden in the center of the chaos and the Crucifixion appears to be set during the 16th century. Let's first look at the painting and then I will discuss more about this movie.

The history of the region is important to keep in mind as you view both the painting and the movie.

The Road to Calvary, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1564

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

In the 15th century Flanders consisted of Belgium, the Netherlands, part of France and was ruled from Burgundy. In the late 15th century Flanders was absorbed into the Hapsburg Empire, then King Charles V of Spain inherited it in the early 16th century. After the Reformation of the Church the Flemish Netherlands became Protestant while Spain was staunchly Catholic. This led to the 80 years war between Spain and the Netherlands with Flanders being ruled over by Spain. Eventually the Netherlands won its independence in 1648.

In 1564 when Bruegel painted this work the Protestant Reformation had happened recently and Spanish soldiers were now occupying Flanders. They are shown in red and on horseback in the painting. It was not uncommon to set Biblical themes within the time of the painter, this had been done from Roger Campin to Raphael to Caravaggio. This was in part due to a lack of knowledge of the architecture and dress of life in the time of Jesus and done unintentionally. There were also many times when it was done intentionally, so that the churchgoers who were praying in front of the painting could better relate Christ to their own lives.

In the case of The Road to Calvary this can be seen as the latter, almost a warning to those who are fighting with each other in the name of religion. Mixed in with scenes of the Passion of Christ are scenes of everyday life, life continues from dancing to fighting to selling wares to mourning the life of Jesus. Above everything sits an imaginary steep and rocky hill topped by a windmill. A windmill had four arms like the cross and was often a symbol for the cross, the windmill also seems a symbol for the ever present eye of God watching down on everyone. This seems more like a festival such as in Bruegel’s many other works such as his Peasant Wedding, the artist was well known for his scenes of peasant life.

The Peasant Wedding, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1568

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

An important thing to keep in mind as well is the role of art in the church at this time, it was not meant to be decorative but to teach parishioners who may be illiterate. Even for those who could read, paintings were a source for meditation and reflection.

I saw the movie in that same sense. Rather than an entertaining story it provided a similar role for the 21st century viewer that religious painting would have provided a 16th century viewer. Majewski's film contained very little dialogue, no real plot and characters who were not fleshed out. But the film is so visually stunning, so absorbing and engages the viewer in such a way as to transport you back to that time. It is obvious that a lot of work went into making this and creating every little detail that was shown.

While there isn't much dialogue, the movie is rich in sound: children playing, bells tolling, crows, crowds and the ever turning and grinding mill which more than ever is the symbol for God in this movie. It is a composite between real and imaginary scenery, full of symbols. I left thinking I would need to watch it again to fully understand it. Charlotte Rampling played the mourning Madonna and had the most eloquent dialogue in the film.

Bruegel's wife seemed to symbolize a young Madonna, one of my friends who I saw it with noticed that a town magistrate seemed to symbolize Ponchos Pilate.

There are violent and brutal scenes, a man is killed and Christ is shown being crucified. However that ties into the theme of the movie acting as a catalyst for reflection the way the painting would have.

Part of the description reads: "Majewski invites the viewer to live inside the aesthetic universe of the painting as we watch it being created."

That statement for me sums the movie up best and has had me thinking about the painting and reflecting on life since I left.

The Last Supper as painted by Ghirlandaio, Leonardo and Tintoretto

2011-09-26T23:21:00.000-07:00

The theme of Christ's Last Supper was a very popular image in Italian Renaissance painting. Perhaps the most well known version is Leonardo da Vinci's fresco in Sta. Maria delle Grazie in Milan, but this scene has been well represented in art history. The Last Supper (known in Italian as l'ultima cena or il cenacolo) was the last meal Christ shared with his twelve apostles before his Crucifixion.

It was at this meal that Christ said "This is my body which is given for you" when he broke the bread to eat and "this is my blood" when he drank the wine. These acts formed the basis for the Eucharist. This is an important part of Christianity which is why it was depicted again and again in art. Let's compare and contrast three different versions of The Last Supper as painted by Ghirlandaio, Leonardo and Tintoretto.

The Last Supper, Domenico Ghirlandaio, San Marco, Florence, 1480's

You may remember from an earlier post that Michelangelo trained in the fresco workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio. The above Last Supper was painted as a fresco in San Marco in Florence, Ghirlandaio painted an almost identical version at the church of Ognissanti (All Saints) in Florence a few years prior. This is a beautiful fresco and a good example of a standard type for this painting in quattrocento (15th century) Italian Renaissance painting.

The Last Supper was also the event where Christ announced that one of his twelve apostles would betray him, he didn't say who but any contemporary viewer would have known that was Judas. Judas is always shown in these early Last Supper paintings as set apart from the rest of the group, here he is the only one present without a holy halo, sometimes his halo is shown as black.

This depiction was used so that the group of apostles would all be visible to the viewers and that worshippers would easily be able to recognize the scene. Symbols were commonly used in art and just as saints all had attributes in art, so did Judas. His attribute early on was to be shown in a disgraced way.

Ghirlandaio (pronounced gear-land-eye-oh) has painted this scene using perspective and created depth in the painting with the tiles on the floor, incorporating painted architectural elements such as windows and arches, and by including a background of landscape with sky, clouds and birds.

He paints with his signature delicate and decorative style using bright light, soft colors, realistic faces and convincing figures. At the time this and the other at Ognissanti were painted, they were considered some of the most beautiful Last Supper frescoes that had been painted.

The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 1495-98

However within ten to fifteen years later Leonardo da Vinci painted his fresco in the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie and this Last Supper was to become the definitive representation of this story. This was also a fresco, but Leonardo used a new technique that didn't work well and began to disintegrate within his own lifetime. As this wasn't done with standard fresco technique his colors are different and he was able to paint with more detail, however much of the original detail has worn away.

Leonardo used a startling and bold new type of composition, done in a much more realistic style than that of his predecessors. Here he doesn't just show the event of the Last Supper but a specific moment, that in which Christ has just announced that one of his apostles will betray him. All at once they begin to ask "Is it I my Lord? Will it be I?"

Jesus is the central point of perspective in this rendition, all the lines used in the architecture to create depth can be traced back to him. Jesus is completely still and calm and all movement and shapes radiate outward from him. In this painting Judas sits with everyone and has just knocked over the salt. Leonardo also uses symbolic representation in this painting, I have mentioned in previous posts that three was a divine number and four was the number of man. Here he separates the apostles into four groups of three, symbolically calling attention to the fact that Christ was the one who joined mankind with divinity through his Crucifixion.

I have always found this to be a powerful piece and have only seen representations of it. When I have seen Leonardo's paintings in person I have felt like they eclipse everything else in the room and seem to glow with a heavenly light all their own. The Last Supper in Milan is something that I very much look forward to seeing in person someday as I get the same sense of that from just seeing pictures in books or slides in lectures.

With Leonardo's new depiction the Last Supper was transformed in painting into a stronger and more realistic scene.

The Last Supper, Tintoretto, San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, 1592-94

For our last painting to compare and contrast let's jump ahead 100 years later to the Late Venetian Renaissance. The damp, humid climate in Venice didn't work as well for fresco painting where pigments where mixed directly into wet plaster. At this time artists used oil on canvas and due to this different medium were able to get different results from Florentine frescoes.

Tintoretto was known for his dynamic style, broad and painterly brushwork and bold highlights painted on a dark ground. Rather than using the early perfectly proportioned and symmetrical compositions of the High Renaissance, he used energetic and dramatic compositions.

We can see that here in this later Last Supper that uses a diagonal dinner table to create depth and drama in the painting. Angels and servants join the others in this painting, however Tintoretto does go back to the earlier depiction of having Judas sit on the opposite side of the table and the only apostle without a halo. His Christ is shown breaking the bread, and as in Leonardo's work Christ seems to be a calm center from which all action emanates.

The Last Supper was painted literally hundreds of times throughout art history, these three artists and styles were important and had a large influence on many of the depictions that followed.

Titian's Entombment of Christ

2011-09-25T20:30:00.000-07:00

Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) was undisputedly one of the great masters of the Venetian Italian Renaissance in the 16th century. He studied under two other great masters: Bellini and Giorgione, and built on the skills he learned to become the most influential painter to come out of the Venetian school. Titian became the official painter of the Venetian Republic in 1516.

The Entombment of Christ, Titian, The Louvre, 1523-26

One of Titian's most significant contributions to painting was his style of brushwork. Titian broke from the tradition of meticulously painting every minute detail from life, instead using expressive bold strokes and dots of color to create illusions, which captured reality. His technique revolutionized painting in the 16th century. Another thing he was known for were his sophisticated mathematical compositions within his works, breaking from earlier more symmetrical paintings.

The Entombment of Christ was a work which embodied the new harmony of the Renaissance. In this composition the figures are placed with a mathematical precision forming two isosceles triangles within the painting. The curving shapes of several others then enhance these triangular shapes. This emphasizes the harmonious proportions that were used in ancient Greek art and revived in the Renaissance. His use of mathematics within the work draws the eye of the viewer into the action taking place.

Death of Meleager, Roman sarcophagus lid, marble, The Louvre, c-180 AD

photo- © user Mbzt / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Entombment of Christ is a relatively early work in Titian's sixty-eight year career as an artist. Frederick Hartt in his History of Italian Renaissance Art wrote of this work:

"The pose of Christ is borrowed from that of the dead Meleager carried from

the boar hunt in a well-known group of Roman sarcophagus reliefs."*

I am not certain if the example of the Roman sarcophagus from the Louvre (shown above) is the specific work that influenced Titian. Even if it was not, it does help illustrate the idea of placing figures within a composition using mathematical arrangement which was common in antiquity.

Pesaro Madonna, Titian, Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, 1519-26

Another early example of this type of composition can be seen in the Pesaro Madonna, shown above. This work also breaks from the perfect symmetry of the High Renaissance to give us a new type of interesting arrangement of form. Again the various sets of figures are arranged in a triangular form.

As I stated in my blog post on Chartres Cathedral, the triangle was the number of divinity. This can be seen in the Trinity and in Christian art and architecture is repeated many times over: the trefoil in Gothic architecture, tripartite naves, figures grouped into three, etc.

The Pesaro Madonna (so named as it was commissioned for the Pesaro family) rearragnes the standard frontal Madonna and Child portrait so as better to create depth, move the viewers eye through the painting and pull the viewer into this divine space. In this Titian uses his trademark brushwork and coloring.

These are just two examples of painting from Titian who created hundreds throughout his long painting career. He was nearly 90 when he died and continued to use the triangle in his compositions up until his final painting of the Pieta which he began for his own tomb.

*Hartt, Frederick. History of Italian Renaissance Art. 4th edition, New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc. Publishers, 1994. p. 591.

Jean François Millet's The Gleaners

2011-09-20T23:03:00.000-07:00

Jean François Millet grew up in a poor farming family on the coast of Normandy. Despite his humble upbringing, Millet was very well educated in both art and literature and decided to move to Paris in 1837 to further his studies in art. Due to his social standing he was not well received at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, instead he joined the studio of a minor master painter, Paul Delaroche. Millet's personal experience contributed to his painting style and he never forgot his background.

Millet's talent as a painter was evident and he started receiving critical acclaim in the early 1840's. However, Millet spent much of his life in poverty and continued to struggle despite his successes.

The Gleaners, Jean François Millet, the Louvre, 1857

He preferred to live in the countryside rather than Paris, he moved to Barbizon in 1849 and remained there for the rest of his life. Millet's style is considered that of the Barbizon School of painters who painted from life and from nature and embraced a new type of realism. Millet was not interested in either the popular Neoclassical or Romantic styles of painting; instead he painted what he knew: farmers and peasants performing their daily tasks of work.

That style is evident in works such as The Gleaners, which was exhibited in the annual Salon of 1857. What we are seeing is a depiction of the lowest type of peasants, those who gather the scraps of hay after the harvest has taken place. The woman are hunched over, their lives are so connected with the earth that none of their heads are placed above the horizon line. However they are shown in a warm glowing light, set apart from the neutral background by wearing muted primary colors. Their proportions and placement in this painting add to the feeling that these women, who were on the bottom of the socioeconomic scale work hard enough to be considered the equivalents of any figure to be featured in painting.

Peasant life had been depicted since the Baroque but not in the same manner as Millet. Earlier paintings of peasants showed a rowdy bunch of characters, peasants as an allegory or an overly romanticized view of life. Millet broke new ground by portraying his realistic figures with a quiet grace and dignity that had only been shown before in subject matter such as mythic heroes and royalty.

Doric, Ionic and Corinthian

2011-09-15T22:57:00.000-07:00

When the Ancient Greeks constructed temples thousands of years ago, they were very precise in their layouts and measurements for every aspect of these buildings. There were three main architectural "orders" known as: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The differences in the styles are most easily recognized in the column capitals (the decoration on top of the columns) and have been used in architecture ever since.

Which style is which and what are the differences between them?

The Doric Order
Our first example, Doric can be seen by looking at the two examples below: to the left the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens and to the right a diagram of the Doric Order. The Doric Order was the first to be introduced, the column capital is plain and undecorated and the column itself is fluted and there is no base to the columns which grew slightly larger in circumference as they neared the base. The Doric order also included a specific "entablature" or decoration above the columns. Alternating "triglyphs" and "metopes" around the frieze at the top and sat on top of a plain band known as the "architrave" where the column would meet the frieze.

Triglyphs had three raised bars (tri=three) which separated each sculptural scene, those were known as metopes (met-oh-pee). The simplicity of this style was very popular in the Archaic Period in Greece (750-480 BC) and seemed to be more popular on the mainland than on the Greek islands. The Doric Order was imposing and massive in their appearance and elements of this continued to influence through the ages.

Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, Greece, 449-415 BC

photo- © Sharon Mollerus / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Here is a more recent example of an adaption of the Doric Order, the Tempietto designed by Bramante in Rome at the start of the 16th century during the High Renaissance. Bramante was also responsible for being one of the principle architects of St. Peter's in Rome.

Note that while Bramante used the classic Doric column capital, he broke from the Ancient Greek tradition by using smooth columns instead of fluted columns and he added bases to the columns which the traditional Doric did not use. Another Renaissance invention was using a different color of marble for the column and capitals. However Bramante did include the full entablature of the Classical Doric Order: an architrave (plain band above the columns) and triglyphs (three raised bars) alternating with metopes (sculptural decoration).

Tempietto, Donato Bramante, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, c-1502

The Ionic Order
The second style that was invented was known as Ionic and can be most easily recognized by the scrolled capital on top of the columns. This style was also created in the Archaic period and was used more frequently on the Aegean Islands than on the Greek mainland.

Besides the scrolled capital which is its most recognizable feature, the fluted columns are thinner and sit on a base. The triglyphs and metopes are replaced by a plain, undecorated frieze.

Column of the Erechtheion, Acropolis of Athens, 421-406 BC

photo- © Guillaume Piolle / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

A beautiful Renaissance example can be seen in La Rotunda (Villa Capra) which was designed by Palladio in Vicenza in the middle of the 16th century. Palladian architecture had an enormous influence on both Renaissance and later architecture. Palladio was very aware the the proportions and harmony that were used to create the original Greek temples.

Here is a detail of one of four symmetrical porches, again the one change that Palladio made was to use smooth columns instead of fluted columns. La Rotunda the influence behind the American president Thomas Jefferson's home of Monticello in Virginia. However Monticello used the Doric Order on its porches.

Porch of the Villa Capra (La Rotunda), Andrea Palladio, Vicenza, began 1567

The Corinthian Order
The Corinthian Order was the latest order to be introduced, the earliest example was found during the Late Classical Period (430-323 BC) but it was the style favored by the Romans in their architecture. The Corinthian order used a column topped with an ornate capital with acanthus leaves and small scrolls. The rest of the Corinthian order was the same as the Ionic order: the column sat on a base and there was a plain frieze instead of the trygliph and metope pattern used in Doric.

From A. Rosengarten, A Handbook of Architectural Styles,1898

The Pantheon in Rome, 126 AD

A very good example of this can be seen in the Roman Pantheon designed in 126 AD. While earlier Greek Corinthian columns were fluted, some later buildings such as the Pantheon were not. There are more examples of the Corinthian Order in architecture because the Romans preferred this style and used it frequently throughout the Roman empire.

Another Palladian example can be seen below in the beautiful gleaming white marble facade of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice. We can instantly see the ornate column capital consisting of small scrolls and curling acanthus leaves.

San Giorgio Maggiore, Andrea Palladio, Venice, 1566-1610

While there have been variations from the original Greek orders throughout the ages, even the Romans created variations. Greek columns were freestanding and used for structural support but the Romans often used columns for decorative purposes.

Look at the Colosseum, below. Greek temples were built using only one order but the three bands of decorative columns are each topped with a different column capital. Without looking can you identify each of the three?

Exterior of the Colosseum, Rome, 72-80 AD

photo- © Paul Zangaro / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Remember that Doric has a plain capital, Ionic a scroll and Corinthian an elaborate one topped with leaves and small scrolls. Therefore from the bottom up are Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.

Variation on the three Greek orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian can be found everywhere. They were used in the Renaissance, the Baroque and the Neoclassical styles of the 18th century as well as various revivals in the 19th and 20th century. They are still in use today from public buildings to private homes and my blog readers are likely to spot them soon. Next time you see a column that was created in the Greco-Roman style (or an original) you can ask yourself- Is it Doric, Ionic or Corinthian and I am sure you will know.

Chartres Cathedral's North Rose window

2011-09-11T17:59:00.000-07:00

To a modern viewer Medieval stained glass windows are a beautiful aspect of churches but to the Medieval viewer, stained glass windows were like books in Gothic Cathedrals, each pane told a story and each window was like a book of stories, usually pertaining to the bible. Though there were also often references to history, past and current rulers, saints, the seasons or local stories as well.

Rose windows in cathedrals were beautiful examples of this. These were called rose windows as the panes of glass radiated outwards in a circular pattern like a rose, rose windows are found in most Gothic Cathedrals. Several years ago I was fortunate enough to visit the beautiful Notre Dame Cathedral in Chartres, which is in central France and had a tour by renowned Gothic scholar Malcolm Miller. Each tour he gives focuses on a different part of the cathedral and tour I went on focused on both the Northern Rose Window and the North Porch which is on the exterior side of the cathedral. Both had a very similar iconography; that of the prophets telling of the birth of Christ, and of Mary.

North Rose Window at Notre Dame Cathedral, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- © Guillaume Piolle / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In the very center of the window the Virgin Mary holds the baby Jesus She is surrounded immediately by doves and angels. The 12 major prophets encircle them in diamond shaped windows. Then there are 12 quatrefoil (4 1/2 circles) windows with the symbol of France the fleur-de-lis. The fleur-de-lis is literally "the lily flower" the flower that the Virgin Mary is always seen holding in an Annunciation scene. The lily was for centuries a symbol used to indicate purity and the deep color blue is the color of the Mary and also a symbol for purity.

The exterior half lunette shapes each contain one of the minor prophets. The small lancet (long, thin windows) windows at either side of the main rose window would indicate who the patron was, in this case Queen Blanche of Castille who was originally from the Castillian region of Spain before marrying into the French royal family and becoming the mother of St. Louis. She ruled at the regent of France from 1226-1236. The fleur-de-lis being the symbol of France and the gold castle on a red background being the symbol of Castille. Anyone seeing this would have recognized right away that these were the joint symbols of Blanche of Castille.

North Rose Window, detail of center, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- © Mossot / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

It is important to keep in mind when viewing medieval art that as much of the population was illiterate, there was a greater significance placed on symbols. Specific numbers, colors and objects all told stories to the viewer. When we look at this Rose window we notice that we have five concentric circles which all contain 12 small windows: the center has 12 small circles, then 12 windows radiate out from that, there are 12 diamond shapes, 12 quatrefoil shapes and finally 12 half lunettes.

Everything is planned in medieval art, the number 12 was important for several reasons. Three was of course the number of the trinity and four was the number of man. Man had four limbs, life cycles and seasons. The Cross on which Christ was crucified also had four arms. Therefore 12 (3 x 4) was a joining of the divine with mankind, which is also why the number 7 (3 + 4) was important symbolically. Each color was significant as well, as mentioned earlier blue was a symbol of the Virgin, also red was a symbol for the Blood and Passion of Christ.

King David, St. Anne with the young Virgin and King Solomon
North Rose Window, detail of lower lancets, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- © Amanda Harmonia/ public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Below the rose there are five larger lancet windows showing from left to right: King Melchizedek, King David, St. Anne with the young Virgin, King Solomon and Aaron. Each of the four Old Testament figures is on top of a heretical figure such as King Saul committing suicide or Jeoboam praying to golden idols of calves.

The cathedral has three rose windows and nearly two hundred other stained glass windows, most made in the early 13th century by artists whose names are lost to us. However the beauty and messages of these windows live on.

North Rose Window, detail, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- © Amanda Harmonia/ public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Note: Malcolm Miller has also written several books on Chartres Cathedral. I bought one while I was there but you can also find them online, they are published by Pitkin Guides

If you visit make sure to go on one of the twice daily tours he offers.

The Colour of My Dreams: The Surrealist Revolution in Art

2011-09-08T19:12:00.000-07:00

I recently visited Vancouver, B.C. where I saw the exhibit The Colour of My Dreams: The Surrealist Revolution in Art at the Vancouver Art Gallery. It is a huge show and if you haven't seen it yet you have until the end of the month, it ends on Sunday, October 2. There are hundreds of artworks by 80 artists in a wide variety of media. If you are interested in Modern Art I definitely recommend this exhibit.

I am interested in all of the meanings behind Surrealism and know I have a lot to learn. The exhibit is huge and brings Surrealist work together and borrows from dozens of museums and private collections.

René Magritte, The Six Elements, 1929, oil on canvas
Philadelphia Museum of Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, 1950
© Estate of René Magritte / SODRAC (2010)

There are paintings, videos, drawings (including several "exquisite corpse drawings") and sculptures. The sculpture also includes many works from Canada's First Nations (known in America as Native Americans) which had a strong influence on Surrealism. I hadn't realized this earlier but seeing the side by side comparison gave me a new appreciation for both types of art.

Surrealism began in Europe in the 20's and the movement was influenced by a variety of things including-
-The studies of Freud and new ideas about psychoanalysis as well as dream analysis.
-The art of the Dada artists a decade earlier who used art to make sense or World War I (or use their "nonsense art" to show that the war didn't make sense).
-The Metaphysical art movement also about a decade earlier which was the first to explore the ideas of the unconscious.
-The idea that tapping into the unconscious and letting go of rational thought completely frees ones creativity.

Joan Miró, Photo: This is the Colour of My Dreams, 1925, oil on canvas
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Pierre and Maria-Gaetana Matisse Collection, 2002
© Successió Miró/SODRAC (2011)
Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY

I will fully admit that I am not expert on the period, I have mostly been researching pre-20th century art. However I have always found it fascinating, ever since I saw the work of Rene Magritte as a child. A year ago I saw an amazing exhibit of Metaphysical art in Florence and this past spring my interest was renewed when I visited the Magritte Museum in Brussels.

Surrealism didn't have one specific style but most artists were interested in either creating very realistic works that didn't make visual sense (such as Magritte) or in creating works that were done when they let go of a rational thought process (such as Miro). One example of the latter is the painting above by Miro which gave the exhibit its name.

Max Ernst, The Forest, 1923, oil on canvas
Philadelphia Museum of Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, 1950
© Estate of Max Ernst / SODRAC (2010)

Rather than being arranged chronologically, the curators divided the art work into several categories. Some of those categories were "Spaces of the Unconsious", "Forests/Labyrinths", "Exquisite Corpse", "Myths, Maps, Magic" and "Anatomies of Desire" each highlighting a different aspect of Surrealism.

Both forests and labyrinths were aspects of the human psyche, forests were thought of as dark and foreboding and could be interpreted as the darker part of human nature. Labyrinths were confusing places where people lost reason. The Surrealists had a journal titled "Minotaur" after the Minotaur that was in the labyrinth of Greek Mythology.

Pietà or Revolution by Night, Max Ernst, 1923, oil on canvas
Tate Modern, Purchased 1981, © Estate of Max Ernst/SODRAC (2011)
Photo: Tate, London/Art Resource, NY

The "exquisite corpse" were group drawings where a folded piece of paper each had an artist add an element of a figure to it. It is the visual equivalent of having everyone add a line to a story without seeing the line preceding it. The results were interesting and usually pretty amusing in a creative way.

Myths, Maps, Magic highlighted the influence of the Canadian First Nations upon Surrealism. There was a beautiful example from the Kwakwaka’wak tribe of a peace dance headdress made of maple, abalone, paint, cloth, ermine fur and sea lion whiskers which is part of the permanent collection of the Vancouver Art Gallery.

I came away with a better understanding and appreciation for Surrealism, as well as a sense that I want to learn morn about this art movement. The Surrealists have provided inspiration for generations of Modern and Contemporary artists.

I think everyone will want to see this show, but if you do miss it there is a very good exhibit catalog which accompanies it:

The Colour of My Dreams: The Surrealist Revolution in Art by Dawn Ades

The Arnolfini Wedding Portrait

2011-09-03T15:21:00.000-07:00

There have been so many things written about the very well known Arnolfini Wedding Portrait done by Jan van Eyck in 1434 that I hope I can add something new. At the same time I hope I can fit everything I want to say in just one blog post, this work is filled with meaning and it is a fascinating double portrait.

This was painted in Bruges by the Flemish artist van Eyck and showed a wealthy Italian patron who was originally from Lucca in Tuscany. There was quite a lot of trade and influence between Tuscany and Flanders as Tuscany was known for its wool and wool cloth and Flanders for its tapestries. Arnolfini had been living in Bruges for years. It is a sign of his wealth and prestige to have commissioned a painting done by one of the highly sought after Flemish masters such as van Eyck.

Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, Jan van Eyck, 1434, The National Gallery (London)

In my very first blog post I cautioned modern viewers not to judge a painting by its title which can often be misleading. The first reaction of many viewers when they see this is, "This is a wedding portrait? But she is very pregnant!"

We should look at this instead as a portrait which commemorated the wedding between the Italian merchant Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini and his wife (whose identity in this painting is uncertain). This could have been painted after her death (Arnolfini's first wife died in 1433 and there was no documented 2nd wedding), painted after the wedding, or even painted before a 2nd wedding took place.

When looking at this and other paintings from this time period the modern viewer needs to keep in mind that the standards of beauty in 15th century Flanders differ considerably from those in the late 20th/early 21st century. At a time when so many people were very thin due to poverty, a plump figure was considered more attractive. Also at a time when infant mortality rates were quite high, women would pad their stomachs to look pregnant as it was desirable to be so. That was a sign of wealth, youth and fertility. Look closely at the detail of the figures (below), the bride is actually holding a large piece of the fabric of her dress to her waist.

Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, detail of the figures, van Eyck, 1434

Therefore it is unknown if the woman was pregnant at all but was just trying to look like she was or to indicate that she was fertile and that the marriage would produce numerous children. Or if it was an unintended side effect of holding her dress up which would have been necessary for her to walk.

Another fashion from the time was for a woman to pluck her hairline very far back, we can see that she has done this as well. It was considered very elegant to have an extremely high forehead.

One reason that this has either been thought to be a memorial portrait or a portrait of a woman who Arnolfini is engaged to but hasn't met yet is her lack of specific features. Versions of the same sweetly precious face can be seen in several of van Eyck's angels. She looks rather stylized, like the idea of a beautiful woman rather than a specific person. In the case of the former there wouldn't have been a record of her appearance and in the case of the latter it was not uncommon for marriages to be arranged.

However the features of Giovanni Arnolfini's face are very pronounced, compare his portrait with the one below. This was also done by van Eyck and more than likely shows the same man, or another member of the wealthy Arnolfini family.

Portrait of a Man (possibly Giovanni Arnolfini) van Eyck,

The National Museums' Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, detail of the dog and shoes, van Eyck, 1434

As was typical in paintings done at this time, the work is filled with symbols for the viewer. The dog was a symbol of the fidelity of the marriage, and the shoes were removed as a sign of respect. In fact shoes are often removed in Flemish paintings, the same thing can be seen in the Portinari Altarpiece, that I recently wrote about (if you look at that also note the high hairlines of the female saints as well).

Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, detail of the mirror, van Eyck, 1434

This painting isn't very large, (32.4 in × 23.6 in), I have seen it in person at The National Gallery in London and some of the details can only be seen with a magnifying glass. One example is the convex mirror on the back wall. The mirror and the fact that two other people are entering the room can easily be seen. There are ten small circular pictures embedded in the mirror that show scenes from the Passion of Christ which are very difficult to see with the naked eye.

Quite possibly the artist was using a type of magnifying glass in order to paint these small roundels and other very small and specific details.

Who were the two people in the mirror? It has been thought that one was the artist, or instead that it shows two witnesses to the actual marriage. Were they instead figures who would have only been present in spirit such as patron saints or ancestors? This has remained a mystery.

Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, detail of the window, van Eyck, 1434

The oranges which can be seen near the window were a subtle symbol of wealth, this is because they were not native to the region and would have been imported from a warmer climate. Only the wealthy would have had oranges on hand.

Other symbols of wealth were the outfits that are worn, long and trimmed with fur, and the rich and vibrant pigments used to paint them. The rich reds, blues and greens could only be achieved when semi precious imported stones were ground up and added to the paint to get such lustrous colors.

Arnolfini Wedding Portrait, detail of the chandelier, van Eyck, 1434

Lastly we will look at the signature and the chandelier. This was painted at a time when not all artists signed their works, but here van Eyck has signed his name with a flourish. He uses a formal calligraphy and writes "Jan van Eyck was Here" and adds the date as well. One reason in fact that he is thought to be one of the figures in the mirror is how this is written. Take note of St. Margaret, who is always shown trampling a dragon (as can also be seen in the wing of the Portinari altarpiece). There is a figure of her on the bedpost though I am not certain of her significance in this scene.

The chandelier is a very interesting feature of the painting, it only has one lit candle, a reference to the ever present eye of God. The artist was carefully observing the laws of perspective when he painted this and the details on each elaborate arm.

There are still so many other objects and symbols in this work- the bed (referring to the marriage), the broom (the domestic realm), the cherry tree seen through the window (this is either a spring marriage or a reference to fruitfulness), the rosary (showing the sanctity of marriage). Even the placement of the figures has a symbolism, the wife stands in the half near the interior which was her realm and Arnolfini stands closer to the window and outside since his realm was his business outside the home.

I really find this painting endlessly fascinating and judging by all that has been written on it I am not alone.

Hubert Robert's View of the Port of Ripetta in Rome

2011-09-01T00:01:00.000-07:00

French painter Hubert Robert was born in 1733 and spent most of his life in Paris, however he was enrolled at the French Academy in Rome. Robert spent a total of eleven years in Rome; it was there that he befriended Giovanni Battista Piranesi, whose workshop was located near the Academy. The two artists would often go outside to sketch together; both men shared a love of ancient Rome and were drawn to the ruins. During the years that Robert was in Rome he made hundreds of sketches filling several notebooks,

Architectural Capriccio with Figure among Roman Ruins, Pannini, c-1630

He also befriended Giovanni Paolo Pannini while studying at the French Academy; Pannini was the professor of perspective . Robert ended up working in his studio and Pannini became the biggest influence on his artistic style. Pannini took on the role of a mentor for Robert and the younger artist proclaimed him to be the greatest painter of ruins in the world. Pannini frequently painted fictitious cityscapes of Rome or “capriccios” which showed a variety of famous ruins grouped together in one spot, these paintings became popular with patrons on The Grand Tour of Italy.

Robert applied to be a member of the French Royal Academy in Paris and was accepted based on his 1766 painting View of the Port of Ripetta in Rome, which was exhibited in the Salon of 1767. Robert’s painting is a unique style of capriccio, he is “redesigning Rome” by creating a scene pieced together from actual monuments both ancient and modern. Rather than grouping together buildings to make a tourist capriccio in the style of Pannini, he dramatically changes the urban landscape. The influence of both Piranesi and Pannini is evident, but with this painting Robert created a style all his own.

View of the Port of Ripetta in Rome, Hubert Robert, 1766

The Port of Ripetta did exist in another fashion during the time that Robert lived in Rome. The port was built in 1703 under the rule of Pope Clement XI and was designed by the architect Alessandro Specchi. An accurate view of the port can be seen in an engraving by Piranesi which was done in 1753 (not shown here). The port was built on top of a steep muddy bank (the very word Ripetta means little bank) which was already being used for the unloading of small commercial ships traveling to Rome down the Tiber River. At its height the Port of Ripetta was quite busy but did not last very long; its usage and popularity had already waned by the later part of the eighteenth century. By the time of the unification of Italy, river trade had declined and Rome’s population was growing, therefore there was a greater need for additional bridges to span the Tiber. The port was completely dismantled in 1889, less than 200 years after it was built, today one end of the Ponte Cavour sits in its place and a piazza bearing its name is located nearby.

In visually analyzing the work the viewer will notice that Robert has combined the architectural styles of several time periods in his view including ancient (the Pantheon), Renaissance (the Palazzo dei Conservatori from the Campidoglio to our left) and modern (the Port of Ripetta created only fifty years prior). The city of Rome of course has combinations of architectural styles everywhere, but in Robert’s work the way they complement each other makes them appear to all have been planned at the same time.

Also notice that Robert has turned the port itself into a ruin with crumbling steps and the marble wearing off of the high harbor wall to reveal the bricks underneath much like the current condition of the Pantheon. In this detail he seems to suggest that they were built at the same time. The two architectural spaces seem to fit together nicely, the rounded wall complementing the cylindrical shape of the Pantheon. Robert may also have done this to comment on the materials used to build the steps. While most of the stone used for the steps was newly quarried, parts of it were quarried from both the Forum ruins and from the Coliseum and this fact was well known. The Pantheon sits on flat ground and is today hidden from sight from a distance by other buildings, unlike the Coliseum. Robert seeks to give the Pantheon a more prominent spot in the city which is fit for its majestic appearance. By putting the viewpoint near the bottom of the picture we get an increased sense of the grandeur of this monument.

The Pantheon in Rome, built in 126 AD

What is interesting is that in this work his main architectural feature is a monument which combines pagan and Christian meaning. The Pantheon was a Roman temple for all the gods currently used as a church. This unique work nearly gave Robert an opportunity to act as an architect, this redesign of an urban space hints at his later interest in architectural work such as in assisting with the design of the Grand Gallery of the Louvre. This interest can be seen throughout Robert’s career and his studies at the Academy. In his sketchbook from 1760 he has already created several small pen and ink wash capricci. His interest in reviving ancient architectural proportions and in combining Christian and ancient symbolism are evident even then.

Who did Robert have in mind as a viewer for his Roman capricci? Possibly he imagined the viewer as someone who preferred to look back on a view that symbolized Rome rather than one that documented it. There were also political associations with the symbolism of ruins which may have contributed to patronage. In the eighteenth century Rome and ruins were tied in with the idea of Neoclassical art which became popular after the excavations at Pompeii. Neoclassicism in later eighteenth century French painting represented the ending of the Bourbon monarchy, using classical imagery to symbolize the pre-imperial Roman republic in calling for France to reject the monarchy and form its own republic.

Robert’s work can be viewed with multiple significances. His architectural spaces combine the sense of proportion from both the ancient world and the late Baroque time in which he lives. His use of architecture both adds to a romantic view of a classical world and can also be seen as a link between the knowledge of the past and the ties to the papal and possibly Bourbon rule of the present.

Imaginary View of the Grand Gallery of the Louvre in Ruins, Hubert Robert, 1796, Louvre

The use of ruins in Robert’s work can be seen to represent the constancy of man rather than to be used as symbols of destruction and decay. The use of multiple figures at work or at play in his ruin paintings illustrate how mankind continues to participate with one another throughout the centuries. That same concept led him to paint one of his more well known works while he was redesigning the Louvre to be a public art museum after the French Revolution, Imaginary View of the Grand Gallery of the Louvre in Ruins. In this work he imagines this building in the future, and the cycle of tourists and ruins continuing indefinitely.

The Still-Lives of Meléndez and Goya

2011-08-29T21:54:00.000-07:00

In an earlier post I discussed how world history could be seen through the Dutch still-lives of the 17th century. That post as well as this were excerpted from my paper Objects and Their Meanings: 400 Years of History as Seen Through the Still-Life. I spoke on this last year at the NWHA conference where the topic was "Teaching World History Through Art." I thought this was an excellent conference theme and learned a great deal. I personally have learned so much of world history by studying art history and wanted to give another illustrating how the viewer can directly see world events affect still-life paintings. Still-lives can be seen as primary source documents like letters and diaries. Larger events in history and going to affect what and how everyday objects are shown.

Due to the difference in the reigns between King Charles III and King Charles IV we can see a duality in the style of still-life painting in late 18th and early 19th century Spain. As my example I will compare and contrast one each of the still-lives of Meléndez and Goya.

Still Life with Watermelons and Apples, Luis Egidio Meléndez, c-1770, Museo del Prado

The reign of Spain’s King Charles III (1716-1788) brought in a new era of prosperity with the conquest of Naples and Sicily. Charles III was also working on urban planning and turning Madrid into a capitol city, in 1770 he chose a National anthem and flag for the country. He had several court painters, one being Luis Egidio Meléndez, who painted a series of 40 still-lives for the Royal Palace. He wanted to depict every type of fruit and vegetable grown in Spain, therefore those paintings can be seen as symbols of Spanish pride. The following year Melendez painted his Afternoon Meal which reflected the leisure of the aristocracy who were able to picnic in the country on a variety of delicious types of produce and gave some insight into courtly life.

Still-Life with Sheep’s Head, Francisco Goya, 1808-12, Louvre

However after the King’s rule ended in 1788 Spain began to decline politically under the rule of the ineffectual king Charles IV. Francisco Goya was the royal court painter but he was disillusioned by royalty, often portraying the royal family as buffoonish. Goya lived through the particularly brutal Napoleonic siege on Madrid in 1808. As he painted his well-known work, The 3^rd of May, which showed the horrors of war on a human scale, he concurrently painted several still-lives such as his Still-Life with Sheep’s Head. This still-life was one of several where the subject was cut up meat or fish. The butchered meat still-life wasn’t new but was now painted with a sense of disturbing accuracy and brutality due to the severed head. The sheep can be seen as an innocent led to slaughter the way the Spanish people were during that terrible time.

The Third of May 1808, Francisco Goya, 1814, Museo del Prado

The Imaginary Prisons of Piranesi

2011-08-26T00:36:00.000-07:00

In painting, a capriccio is a work where part or all of the subject matter is invented and typically focuses on architecture. The word itself is derived from the Italian term used for the impulsive jumping of a baby goat. The capriccio style was developed as an art form in early eighteenth century Venice, influenced by Italian theater. The genre grew in Italy throughout the eighteenth century, especially in Venice and Rome as a result of the Grand Tour when capricci were created as an alternative to the veduta, also known as a view painting. The capriccio was not meant to represent reality, but rather to provide the viewer with an interesting image based on reality.

The Drawbridge, Etching from the series: The Imaginary Prisons

Compositions of capricci ranged in subject, type and style and often included the monuments or ruins in Italy that travelers came to see. Painters such as Canaletto in Venice, and Pannini in Rome, created paintings based on altered views of their respective cities. Some were slightly altered to make for a more enjoyable visual composition while other views completely rearranged well known monuments to make them fit into the same scene. The typical patron of these capricci were British travelers on the Grand Tour who wanted to bring home paintings which captured several specific monuments or created interesting imaginary views.

The Gothic Arch, Etching from the series: The Imaginary Prisons

Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-1778) was an Italian artist best known for his hundreds of etchings including views of Rome, Pompeii and his series on "Le Carceri d'Invenzione" or "The Imaginary Prisons. Piranesi was born and raised in the Veneto region and spent most of his life in Rome which gave him the inspiration for most of his work.

The Saw Horse, Etching from the series: The Imaginary Prisons

While in the Veneto Piranesi was trained in both architecture and stage design for theater and opera. He was also heavily influenced by the Classical Renaissance style of architecture introduced by Palladio, which can be seen in the symmetry of pillars and arches. Piranesi created a variation on capricci which were based entirely on his imagination; he created a wide variety of etchings showing scenes ranging from views of an imagined Ancient Rome to a series of imaginary prisons.

The Imaginary Prisons (Le Carceri d'Invenzione) were one series of his etchings that he published in 1750, he reworked and republished them about a decade later. Unlike a typical capriccio, these weren't created to appeal to the Grand Tourist and fully expressed the imagination of the artist rather than being based on well known monuments.

The Pier with Chains, Etching from the series: The Imaginary Prisons

These scenes have always been found unsettling and were inspired by an opera set that he had worked on in the past. They are referred to as prisons, but there are nearly no people in these scenes. Instead Piranesi uses the same sense of scale as the monumental, ancient architecture of Rome as well as a Gothic sense of atmosphere. While he was creating drawings for these etchings, he also seems to derive his strong lights and darks from the Caravagisti painters (this term was described in my earlier blog post on Caravaggio) which further adds to the tension.

Arch with a Shell Ornament, Etching from the series: The Imaginary Prisons

They are both fascinating and menacing, perfectly ordered yet confusing and chaotic, realistic and dreamlike. They drew on his imagination, his theatrical set experience and his knowledge of architecture. Considering this work was created in the mid-eighteenth century, this is a far cry from the lighthearted and decorative Rococo style which was now in favor.

The Smoking Fire, Etching from the series: The Imaginary Prisons

Look closely at each print, each can make the viewer feel lost or trapped, trying to figure the way out. But for the titles there is little to identify most scenes as prisons, if they were referred to in another sense (the theater, the castle, etc.) perhaps they wouldn't be so intimidating.

This series of etchings went on to influence many other artists such as the Romanticism movement, the Surrealists and M.C. Escher to name a few. Piranesi's other works of art are among my favorites, but it is this series that sets him apart from other artists of his time.

I Macchiaioli

2011-08-22T21:43:00.000-07:00

The Pitti Palace in Florence is a large collection of museums including an enormous garden housed in the former Medici palace. I have been to the Pitti Palace several times, but in 2010 for the first time I went to the Galeria dell’Arte Moderna (Gallery of Modern Art). It was then that I learned about a group of late 19th century Italian painters I had never heard of before, I Macchiaioli. Specifically this group lived and worked in Tuscany at the same time that the Italian regions and city-states were unifying as the country of Italy.

Giovanni Fattori, Spiaggia Boscosa,1894 (1825-1908)

I was truly impressed by their work and wondered why I hadn’t seen them in a book on 19^th century artists or read about them in an overview on painting in general. In fact I am having trouble finding a book written in English about this group of painters. I bought a wonderful book in Italian from the gift shop which has helped inspire me to keep studying Italian but I must admit I read Italian quite slowly. I want to introduce this group to a larger audience which may not know of their work, but at the same time I am still learning myself of their styles and influence.

The name I Macchiaioli is derived from the word for “spots” as in spots of light, shadow and color, think of a “café macchiato” which is espresso spotted with milk and it is pronounced much the same way. The Gallery of Modern Art had the best wall text and gallery overviews, I read them all and took notes too, they gave me a lot to think about- actually they go very in depth.

Telemaco Signorini, La Piazza di Settignano, 1881(1835-1901)

I learned how Italian painters of the 18^th and 19^th centuries were influenced by French artists with Neoclassical art (a branch of the Bourbon family lived in Lucca), Romanticism (a return to early narrative styles), Realism (peasant scenes ala Jules Bastien-La Page), the Barbizon School and Impressionism. At the same time they were influenced by the centuries of Renaissance art around them.

In thinking of spots of color and in looking at their work it would seem that the Macchiaioli was influenced by the French Impressionists, but in fact they predate them by a decade. I find it very interesting that both of these styles were developing around the same time in different parts of Europe. The Macchiaioli painters were subjected to similar ridicule and criticism from art critics as their Impressionist contemporaries.

Guiseppe Abbati, Il Lattaio di Piagentina, 1864 (1836-1868)

Here is a quote from the wall text which describes how early 19th century painters were turning away from Neoclassicism:

“Italian artists felt that in order to overcome canons imposed by antiquated models it was necessary, not only to invoke themes of modern history, but to make them more attractive by reclaiming the grand experience of 16th and 17th century art, considered the most appropriate for expression of sublime concepts and natural passions.”

After centuries of leading the western world artistically the influence of contemporary Italian artists had waned and was supplanted by the French. However those same French artists were coming to Italy to study the Renaissance. In the late 1800’s Italy was uniting as a country but the Risorgimento had a lot of work to do during the transition. Artists from all over Europe and beyond were continuing to travel to Italy for the “Grand Tour” and their work and presence was in turn influencing the artists who lived here.

It seems that I Macchiaioli were using their own experiences and landscape to capture a feeling of rural life and the middle class during the modern age, while at the same time looking toward the great artists of the past who influenced their use of realism and pure color. Their style was the antithesis of Neoclassical art much in the same way that the Impressionists rejected the painting style of the French Academy.

One main difference seemed to me to be that the Impressionists were mainly concerned about depicting light and color and the Macchiaioli were interested in depicting modern subjects and exploring a new voice for Italian painters. It is important to keep in mind that during this historic time of Italian unification (and the wars that were fought for the unification to be successful and to be prevented) that it was significant for the artists to find a new style which was both Italian and modern.

I am personally impressed by the wide range in styles of the artists, the light that was captured by each painting, the colors that were used, the shapes of the canvases and the feelings that were captured using “spots” of color.

Silvestro Lega, Un Dopo Pranzo, 1868 (1826-1895)

Here is the full list of artists in my book on the Macchiaioli called “I Macchiaioli: La Storia, Gli Artisti, Le Opere” written by Silvestra Bietoletti and published in 2001 by Giunti Editore in Florence. I have hyper-linked those artists that have biographies listed in Wikipedia:

Giuseppe Abbati Saverio Altamura Cristiano Banti Luigi Bechi

Giovanni Boldini Odoardo Borrani Ferdinando Buonamici

Vincenzo Cabianca Niccolò Cannicci Adriano Cecioni Vito D'Ancona

Serafino De Tivoli Giovanni Fattori Egisto Ferroni Lorenzo Gelati

Francesco Gioli Silvestro Lega Stanislao Pointeau Antonio Puccinelli

Raffaello Sernesi Telemaco Signorini Michele Tedesco Adolfo Tommasi

Federico Zandomeneghi

I am hoping to learn more about each artist though it will take a while for me to translate my whole book. But after I do (or find a reasonably priced book in English) I will write more on this wonderful group of painters. In the meantime I hope to see more of their work in person on future visits to Italy.

Museum Exhibits Fall 2011

2011-08-22T10:27:00.000-07:00

I have been researching additional museum exhibits at major museums in America and Europe. There will be quite a few interesting art museum exhibits this fall, I have listed some of them below. There are always too many to list at once, but I am trying to list exhibits on a regular basis that I would like to see myself. All the information listed below is taken directly from the various museum websites.

If you are fortunate enough to live in or visit one of these cities, make certain to go to these fantastic exhibits!

The Virgin of the Rocks, Leonardo da Vinci, 1483-86, Louvre

The National Gallery (London)

Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan
November 9, 2011–February 5, 2012

‘Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan’ is the most complete display of Leonardo’s rare surviving paintings ever held. This unprecedented exhibition – the first of its kind anywhere in the world – brings together sensational international loans never before seen in the UK.

Featuring the finest paintings and drawings by Leonardo and his followers, the exhibition examines Leonardo’s pursuit for perfection in his representation of the human form. Works on display include ‘La Belle Ferronière’ (Musée du Louvre, Paris), the ‘Madonna Litta’ (Hermitage, Saint Petersburg) and ‘Saint Jerome’ (Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome). For the first time both versions of the Madonna of the Rocks will be displayed together (one on loan from the Louvre).

The final part of the exhibition features a near-contemporary, full-scale copy of Leonardo’s famous ‘Last Supper’, on loan from the Royal Academy. Seen alongside all the surviving preparatory drawings made by Leonardo for the 'Last Supper', visitors will discover how such a large-scale painting was designed and executed.

Museum of Modern Art (NYC)

de Kooning: A Retrospective

September 18, 2011–January 9, 2012

This is the first major museum exhibition devoted to the full scope of the career of Willem de Kooning, widely considered to be among the most important and prolific artists of the 20th century. The exhibition, which will only be seen at MoMA, presents an unparalleled opportunity to study the artist’s development over nearly seven decades, beginning with his early academic works, made in Holland before he moved to the United States in 1926, and concluding with his final, sparely abstract paintings of the late 1980s. Bringing together nearly 200 works from public and private collections, the exhibition will occupy the Museum’s entire sixth-floor gallery space, totaling approximately 17,000 square feet.

Representing nearly every type of work de Kooning made, in both technique and subject matter, this retrospective includes paintings, sculptures, drawings, and prints.

The Lute Player, Caravaggio, 1596, Hermitage, St. Petersburg

Museo Nacional del Prado (Madrid, Spain)

The Hermitage in the Prado

November 8 to March 25 2012

Jointly organised by the Museo del Prado, the State Hermitage Museum and Spanish Cultural Action, this exhibition will bring together a sizeable group of works that reveal the varied nature of the collections of the Hermitage, which range from the 5th century BC to the 20th century. It will include outstanding examples of classical art, decorative works of art, painting, sculpture and drawing. The exhibition will occupy all the Prado’s temporary exhibition galleries in the new extension, which will become a “mini- Hermitage” for the four months of the exhibition.

Paintings to be loaned to the Prado include major compositions such as Saint Sebastian by Titian, The Lute Player by Caravaggio, Saint Sebastian by Ribera, and Three Men at a Table by Velázquez. Two important works by Rembrandt, Portrait of a Scholar and Haman accepts his Fate will also be on display. Drawings on loan will include works by Dürer, Rubens, Watteau and Ingres, while sculptures include the terracotta study by Bernini for The Ecstasy of Saint Theresa and one of Antonio Canova’s masterpieces, Mary Magdalen in meditation. The exhibition will also have notable examples of the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings in the Hermitage, including works by Monet, Cézanne, Renoir, Gauguin and Matisse, the latter represented by The Game of Bowls and Conversation. There will be three canvases by Picasso, including Seated Woman and The Absinth Drinker, while this section will be completed with two Russian avant-garde abstract works, Composition VI by Kandinsky and Malevich’s enigmatic Black Painting.

Metropolitan Museum of Art (NYC)

The Renaissance Portrait from Donatello to Bellini
December 21, 2011–March 18, 2012

It has been said that the Renaissance witnessed the rediscovery of the individual. In keeping with this notion, early Renaissance Italy also hosted the first great age of portraiture in Europe. Portraiture assumed a new importance, whether it was to record the features of a family member for future generations, celebrate a prince or warrior, extol the beauty of a woman, or make possible the exchange of a likeness among friends. This exhibition will bring together approximately 160 works—by artists including Donatello, Filippo Lippi, Botticelli, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio, Pisanello, Mantegna, Giovanni Bellini, and Antonello da Messina, and in media ranging from painting and manuscript illumination to marble sculpture and bronze medals, testifying to the new vogue for and uses of portraiture in fifteenth-century Italy.

Sistine Chapel Ceiling Part II: Earlier Influences

2011-08-18T22:43:00.000-07:00

My blog post earlier in the week has inspired me to write even more on Michelangelo and the Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes. Honestly I could probably write on this topic weekly and still find new things to say, its impact on art was so significant.

At the same time though, while Michelangelo’s frescoes have provided inspiration for hundreds of other artists and artworks, it appears that he also drew on a wide variety of earlier images. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance there were certain visual traditions that were used in art to let the viewer instantly recognize the subject.

Michelangelo was from Florence, the city known as the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance where many examples of art could be found. Michelangelo greatly respected the master painters and sculptors that came before him and drew on their art for his own inspiration.

Temptation, Masolino and Expulsion, Masaccio, Brancacci Chapel,

S. Maria del Carmine, Florence, 1424-27

One example can be found in Michelangelo's Temptation and Expulsion fresco, he was influenced by the frescoes in Santa Maria del Carmine, the Carmelite church in Florence. The frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel by Masolino and Masaccio with the same subject matter were works of art that he was known to regularly visit and sketch from.

Let's compare and contrast the subjects. From Masolino, Michelangelo borrowed the idea of the serpent in the Garden of Eden having the head of a woman rather than that of a snake. Both artists also focused on the figures rather than the garden setting. From Masaccio Michelangelo used the idea of an angel with a sword and showing Adam and Eve as having become haggard and miserable as they were forced to leave, both sets of figures appear to be in agony.

Michelangelo's fresco was painted more than 80 years later than the earlier two. When comparing and contrasting both sets of figures we can see that he spent quite a lot of time studying anatomy. Drawing from the nude life model was now a more acceptable practice, and while it was still unacceptable to dissect cadavers, his study of bones and muscles has paid off in a depicting very accurate and realistic bodies.

Temptation and Expulsion from Eden, Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican, 1508-12

Another example can be found in the cloisters at Santa Maria Novella. The frescoes done outside in the cloister by Paolo Uccello are known as the Chiostro Verde (Green Cloisters) because they have faded after being exposed to the elements and have a greenish appearance.

Interestingly enough they cover the same subject matter as the Sistine Chapel ceiling: The stories from Genesis (Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve, Temptation, Expulsion) and scenes of the Deluge and Noah's Ark.

Santa Maria Novella is the same church that Ghirlandaio and his workshop painted two enormous fresco cycles. At the time those were being painted, Michelangelo was studying under Ghirlandaio. He was participating in the fresco painting and would have become very familiar with Uccello's work.

Again Uccello's Temptation scene shows the serpent with the head of a woman, however he takes great care to paint a landscape and foliage in his fresco.

Creation of the Animals, Creation of Adam, Creation of Eve, Temptation in the Garden of Eden, Paolo Uccello, Chiostro Verde, St. Maria Novella, Florence, c-1430-1450

Compare and contrast Uccello's Creation of Adam with Michelangelo's Creation of Eve (left hand scene shown below). Both show God as an old robed man who is helping up the newly created human. There is something of Uccello's Adam in Michelangelo's Creation of Adam as well, the pose that Adam takes with one straight leg and one bent knee.

I imagine that when they were first done the Uccello frescoes looked much different and would have been quite impressive. However when compared side by side (done years later) it is easy to see why Michelangelo became such an influence on later artists. His realism is stunning.

Look at the interesting view of the ceiling below, the combination of large scenes combined with smaller scenes and the painted illusion of sculpture and a cornice is incredible. Everything you see below is painted and creates both a striking illusion and a powerful narrative.

Last but not least we should remember the influence of the ancient sculpture, the Laocoon, which was unearthed while Michelangelo was painting this in Rome (more information can be found in an earlier blog post I wrote on the Laocoon in July of 2011). The sculpture can be seen in the left hand column of this blog.

The struggle taking place and the twisting torso influenced those figures known as "ignudi" on the ceiling. They were the mysterious athletic male figures who frame the corners of each main scene, no two have the same pose.

In a later post I want to highlight some of the later artists that Michelangelo influenced, I already mentioned this in my writing on Caravaggio. There are many, many other artists that drew on Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes as a source. I think that may be a very long blog post indeed.

Until then here are my book recommendations-

Michelangelo and the Pope's Ceiling by Ross King- I know I just listed it in my last post but this book is really informative and well written. It is non fiction but feels like a fast paced novel and puts every aspect of this work in a new light.
Michelangelo Biography of a Genius by Bruno Nardini- this is a very good biography.
The Agony and the Ecstasy: A Biographical Novel of Michelangelo by Irving Stone- one of my favorite books, telling the story of Michelangelo through a novel. This is based on history and research but as a novel isn't 100% accurate, still it is a very good story and will give anyone a new appreciation for this great master.

Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling

2011-08-15T23:53:00.000-07:00

We were never supposed to remember Michelangelo when we think of the Sistine Chapel. In the early Renaissance an artist was little more than a tradesman or artisan. Art wasn’t created as self-expression but was typically commissioned by a wealthy patron. Even the best and most highly sought after artists were not considered to be in the same social class as their patrons.

In the case of the Sistine Chapel the patron was the pope. Do many people in the 21^st century know of Pope Julius II (1443-1513) who commissioned the ceiling frescoes or his uncle Pope Sixtus IV (1414-1484) who remodeled the original chapel? Both were from the extremely wealthy and influential della Rovere family in Urbino.

Sistine Chapel Ceiling frescoes, Michelangelo, 1508-12, Vatican

When the Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes were commissioned the public was meant to remember these two popes from the della Rovere family instead. It would have seemed unthinkable before their creation that 500 years later instead the ceiling would be forever linked with the artist rather than the patron.

I have been to the Sistine Chapel more than once, and I am also struck by the fact that it is not just the ceiling which is covered in frescoes by Michelangelo. The entire chapel is covered in frescoes painted by some of the leading artists of the time including Luca Signorelli and then another three who all trained with Leonardo’s teacher Andrea del Verrocchio: Botticelli, Perugino (Raphael’s teacher) and Ghirlandaio (Michelangelo’s first teacher). It is as if the entire Italian High Renaissance is indebted to the work in the Sistine Chapel.

Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter, Pietro Perugino, 1481-82, Vatican

Michelangelo started his artistic training in the fresco workshop of Ghirlandaio in Florence. He participated in the fresco cycles at Santa Maria Novella in Florence, but he didn’t enjoy the medium. Shortly thereafter he received training in sculpting and from that point forward considered himself a sculptor. Later he went to Rome, where he attracted the attention of the Pope with his sculpture of the Pieta.

Pope Julius II saw in the ceiling a blank canvas to express the greatness of the Catholic Church and therefore the implied greatness of the della Rovere family within the church. However Michelangelo wasn’t interested in the commission at all, he was more interested in the Pope’s original idea of building himself an enormous marble tomb. When Julius II changed his mind and asked to have the huge and oddly curved Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoed, Michelangelo left and went home to Florence. The Pope had him followed and asked that he return and the civic leaders made him return so as not to start a war by disobeying the Pope.

The Deluge, Michelangeo, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican, 1508-12

Michelangelo returned with a team of assistants, unlike painting on a canvas a fresco was an incredibly difficult process which involved plastering a wall and immediately painting on the wet plaster. The painting was permanent and had to be removed to fix errors, it took days of four men working together to paint even a small area.

The role of the artist had slowly been changing in the late 15^th century and the three great artists of the High Renaissance (Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael) played a large role in that. It is not entirely known what part Michelangelo played in the layout of the ceiling and the depiction of the Biblical stories shown there. As Ross King writes in his informative book Michelangelo and the Pope's Ceiling (p. 60):

     "For a pope to hand over to a mere artist - even to an artist of Michelangelo's reputation - the
     complete pictorial program for the decoration of the most important chapel in Christendom
     would have been, to say the least, highly unusual."

Temptation and Expulsion from Eden, Michelangeo, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican, 1508-12

It is much more likely that there were advisers to the Pope who helped suggest the design and choose the stories to show. The scenes are all from the Old Testament and relate to rebirth and new beginnings (God creating the World, God creating Adam and Eve, Garden of Eden and Noah's Ark) and therefore indirectly relate to how the della Rovere family helped achieve it's own rebirth of the church.

However Michelangelo visited many churches in Florence and drew on earlier depictions and sources for these (this will be discussed at length in a future blog post). His new realism and use of the figure to tell stories had an immediate impact when the first half of the ceiling was unveiled to the public in 1510.

The Creation of Adam, Michelangeo, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican, 1508-12

The stories were painted in backwards chronological order, note how much his style was changed and simplified from the first scene showing Noah and the Flood. In that early painting the scene is crowded with figures. His work becomes much more effective when he simplifies his style.

He uses the human figure to represent the entire story, leaving out many of the symbols, landscape and backgrounds that other artists were using. His studies in human anatomy are evident and this key work shaped the direction of the Renaissance.

God Separating Darkness and Light, Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Vatican, 1508-12

Pope Julius II recognized the extraordinary skill level of Michelangelo, but it was through his Sistine Chapel Ceiling frescoes that everyone recognized his genius and his status as a "mere artist" was transcended.

Note: For more on this topic my next blog post Sistine Chapel Ceiling Part II: Earlier Influences, discusses some of the earlier art that inspired Michelangelo.

Suggested Reading:

Michelangelo and the Pope's Ceiling by Ross King
Michelangelo: His Life, Work and Times by Linda Murray
Michelangelo: Biography of a Genius by Bruno Nardini

Cave of Forgotten Dreams

2011-08-08T23:18:00.000-07:00

I just saw the documentary Cave of Forgotten Dreams by Werner Herzog. Several people recommended the movie to me and I recently went to see it, by now only showing at the discount theater. Originally it was playing in 3D which would have been interesting but I saw the 2D version.

I know very little about prehistoric or Paleolithic art which was the reason I wanted to see it. The movie was interesting in the fact that it showed a close up and comprehensive view of caves that are not open to the public. However it got me thinking about so many different things that I left the movie with more questions than answers, I have been trying to read more and find more information on this period in art since I saw it. It is fascinating and I recommend watching this.

Wall painting with Horses, Chauvet Cave, France c-30,000 B.C.

Cave of Forgotten Dreams tells the story of the Chauvet Caves in France, apparently this was a relatively recent discovery. Explorers found this cave in 1994, the cave entrance had been sealed for thousands of years due to a rock slide, which is why the art is still in such a pristine condition. It is thought to be the oldest cave art in existence, dated around 30,000 B.C. That over 30,000 years ago there were fairly sophisticated societies making art and music is a difficult concept to wrap my mind around. There are a number of objects, weapons, altars, paintings, very small sculptures and musical instruments which survive from this Paleolithic era which give historians and archaeologists a good amount of information about daily life.

The documentary explains that this was during the Ice Age and that today's humans (Homo Sapiens) lived at the same time as Neanderthals, a separate species. There are no art related artifacts found that were created by Neanderthals, the assumption is made that they didn't create any. Therefore it would seem that the creativity exhibited in early man is one thing that set us apart. Also early man lived side by side with a variety of animals: enormous cave bears, lions, rhinos and wooly mammoths to name a few. I hadn't realized lions and rhinos were living in Europe then but there are many images of them.

The movie was interesting but there wasn't much of a reason or hypothesis given as to who created these paintings and why. In Chauvet Cave it doesn't appear that this was decorative only, but would rather have had a significance, perhaps religious. There is nothing suggesting people lived in the areas where paintings were, but an object that may have been a type of an altar was found.

I was struck by the paintings of the horses, they appear to suggest perspective which astonished me. Is this a herd of horses? Does it represent one horse running or moving? No one explained it and perhaps no one can.

Wall painting of Reindeer, Lascaux Cave, France, c-15,000 B.C.

Before this the oldest cave paintings I knew of were in Lascaux, also in France and in Altamira in Spain. These are both thought to be from approximately 15,000 B.C., which was already hard enough to fathom. One thing all the paintings have in common is the representation of a variety of animals and sometimes a hunter.

Perhaps the paintings told a story of what happened (such as a hunt) or were a way to pray to god or their gods for a successful hunt. One of the researchers in the movie suggested that the people who created this believed that a spirit was guiding them to paint. In one type of cave painting at Chauvet there were many hand prints used as art, created by a man who was 6 feet tall, while that is tall by today's standards that would have been gigantic at the time. I have been thinking that someone (a priest or priestess figure) would have been designated as the painter, if it was believed that the artist was a medium for a spirit, then probably not everyone would have been allowed to paint.

Wall painting of Bison, Altamira Cave, Spain, c-15,000 B.C.

How were they created? Perhaps the paintings were created using hollowed bones to blow pigments on the walls or brushed directly on the surface. In Cave of Forgotten Dreams, it is mentioned that there were two series of paintings made, approximately 5,000 years apart. To me this is another staggering figure, but it is also telling that it had long been thought of as a sacred space.

One of the more incredible details was a flute that was found in pieces near the cave. A scientist put it together and then had a copy made. It was made using a pentatonic scale (not knowing much of musical scales I had to look that up). However the holes to make notes were not random and definitely used this musical scale which is widely used today, the same man who had a copy made played The Star Spangled Banner on the flute.

I think what struck me the most were the ideas in their art that came about much later in art, by artists who couldn't possibly have ever seen the Chauvet cave. Horses painted in perspective that wasn't rediscovered for millennium and animals carefully painted with shading and texture. Animals shown as "moving" by having extra sets of legs made me think of Futurism and Cubism. There was a hybrid creature painted with the head of a bull like the Minotaur from Greek mythology, later used by Picasso as well. The art had elements of realism, naturalism and abstraction and all of these themes resurfaced in art throughout the ages.

There may not be many physical remains of man from the Paleolithic era but the fact that each civilization builds upon another became eerily apparent when looking at paintings created over 30,0000 years ago.

Additional resources:

Clottes, Jean. Chauvet Cave (ca. 30,000 B.C.) | ThematicEssay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Cave of Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc, website

Tedesco, Laura Anne. Lascaux (ca. 15,000 B.C.) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Hugo van der Goes and the Portinari Altarpiece

2011-08-03T00:17:00.000-07:00

During the Renaissance there was a significant amount of trade between Italy and Flanders which impacted both areas culturally. Florence was well known for its wool and Flanders for its cloth and tapestries. During the 15th century Flanders was comprised of modern day Belgium, the Southern Netherlands and the Burgundian region of France and ruled by the Duke of Burgundy.

The influence between Italy and Flanders can be seen in many paintings during the 15th and 16th centuries. There were several wealthy Italian merchants and bankers who commissioned paintings from the highly sought after Flemish artists.

Annunciation, Closed Frontispiece to the Portinari Triptych, Hugo van der Goes, c-1473-78

One such example is the famous Portinari Altarpiece, so named because it was commissioned by the Portinari family, which was painted by the Flemish painter Hugo van der Goes. Tommaso Portinari was a Florentine who worked for the Medici bank in the Flemish city of Bruges. Over a century earlier the famous author Dante Alighieri wrote The Divine Comedy and in it Beatrice Portinari was his guide through Heaven. Dante had loved Beatrice from afar since childhood and she became his muse after she had died young. Tommaso Portinari was a descendant from the same family.

The Portinari Altarpiece was created for the church of San Egidio in the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and it is now in the Uffizi Gallery. This particular work is what is known as a triptych; an altarpiece having three panels, a central panel and two smaller side panels that fold together with hinges. When closed there is another image known as the frontispiece. A 15th century Flemish frontispiece was frequently painted using only shades of gray (known as grisaille). The image on the front corresponds to what is going on inside, here we have an Annunciation where the Angel Gabriel tells the Virgin Mary she is to be the mother of Christ. This grisaille frontispiece has the look of a marble sculptural relief.

Portinari Altarpiece Triptych, Hugo van der Goes, c-1473-78, Uffizi Gallery

The Portinari Altarpiece is extremely large, 8’3” x 9’8” (253 x 301 cm). The theme in the central panel is the Adoration of Christ. The Holy Family is shown in the manger at Bethlehem surrounded by animals and angels and joined by shepherds. Each side panel shows members of the Portinari family with their own patron saints. This is an absolutely beautiful work, startling in its realistic details and jewel-like colors. We will examine each of the three panels more closely.

Adoration of Christ, Central Panel of the Portinari Triptych, Hugo van der Goes, c-1473-78

In the central panel there are several objects with symbolic significance in addition to the principle figures at Christ’s birth. There are lilies in a vase that symbolize Mary’s virginity and purity, and the sheaf of wheat symbolizes the Last Supper. In a smaller vase there are seven flowers, seven was a common number in Medieval and Renaissance art. The Virgin had seven sorrows, there were seven sacraments, seven sins and seven virtues. Three was the number of the holy trinity and four was the number of man (man had four limbs, seasons, elements, stages of life, etc.) and the number seven also symbolized a joining of man and God. One removed their shoes typically as a symbol of respect and the shoe we see would show that this is now holy ground.

The colors in paintings from this era are also symbolic, Mary wears the traditional deep blue which was associated with her. Joseph wears a red robe, in Christian paintings red symbolizes the Blood and Passion of Christ. The lilies in the vase are red, white and blue which also tie into the symbolism of Holy Blood, purity and the color of the Virgin. If you look closely at the background of the central panel you can see that earlier the angels have announced the news to the same shepherds who are now worshiping Christ. This repeating of figures within a frame is known as continuous narrative and is seen throughout art history from Ancient times through the Renaissance.

Tommaso Portinari and sons with Sts. Thomas and Anthony, Left Panel,

Hugo van der Goes, c-1473-38

The Portinari’s had seven children and three of them are seen in the side panels along with their parents and their patron saints. It was very common in Flemish art for the patrons who commissioned the work to include themselves in it. Just as today when programs or events say “this was brought to you by” and list the individual or organization who paid for it, families or groups who paid for art were included in the artwork. Though they would be included in a very reverential way, praying to the saints or holy family. The family is split in two with the men on one side and the women on the other. Each saint also holds a symbol which would make them easily recognizable to the viewer. In the background we can see a very pregnant Mary with Joseph on the Flight into Egypt with a donkey, another example of continuous narrative.

Maria di Francesco Baroncelli and daughter with Sts. Mary Magdelene and Margaret,

Right Panel, Hugo van der Goes, c-1473-78

On the right side we see Tommaso’s wife and daughter with St. Margaret (trampling a dragon) and St. Mary Magdalene (with a jar of ointment) and in the background we can see the three Magi on their way. Notice the hairline of all the women in the painting, it looks like an error but in fact it was the style at the time in Flanders for a woman to pluck back her hairline and have a very high forehead.

Besides the fact that this painting is over life-size, we can tell it was a very valuable painting by the colors that were used. Pigments that were earth tones were easy to find in rocks, clay and wood. But the bright reds, blues and greens came from more expensive precious and semi-precious stones which were ground up. The Portinari Altarpiece has nearly every color imaginable used in it and its size and level of detail took the artist several years to paint. This work is truly one of the highlights of the Flemish Renaissance.